A HISTORY OF CUMBERLAND 
at an early period of a general upheaval, and may also have been con- 
nected with the same cause to which that upheaval was due. There is 
no reason for thinking that any of the volcanoes themselves were reared 
on the area under notice ; but some of the fluid rock connected with 
these volcanoes ate its way upward and outward from the principal foci, 
and has consolidated in the form of dykes, and perhaps also in the form 
of sills or sheets of eruptive rock in a few places." The later phases of 
volcanic action coincided with a general disturbance and upheaval of the 
greater part of Britain, and it was probably at or about this time that 
the principal upland areas of Cumberland—the massifs of the Lake dis- 
trict and Cross Fell—were elevated into nearly their present position. 
It was during the same period that the great Outer Pennine Fault, and 
some other lines of dislocation not so well known, received their last 
great uplift. The effect in the case of the Outer Pennine Fault may 
have been that Carboniferous Rocks surmounted by New Red were 
elevated on the north-east side of the Fault, and brought into horizontal 
contact with Cretaceous Rocks lying on New Red on the south-east. 
There are many reasons for thinking that the volcanic episode was one 
of great length, and that, during this prolonged period, the present river- 
courses were established for the first time. This subject will be reverted 
to further on. 
At the close of the volcanic period, after the surface had been 
shaped by prolonged exposure to the action of rain and rivers into some- 
thing like its present form, hot springs arose through the faults and 
other fissures, and from these heated waters were deposited the contents 
of such mineral veins as those of the Alston Moor district. Possibly 
the last filling of the mineral veins of the Caldbeck Fells, and of some 
others in the Lake district, may date from this period, though there 
are grounds for thinking that, as a whole, the latter veins are of older 
date than those of Alston, and may have originated as far back as 
New Red times. It should be noted that the valuable deposits of 
Hematite which have made west Cumberland what it is, date also from 
New Red times. All the known British deposits of Hematite date from 
this period, and nearly all of them are due to the slow replacement of 
pre-existent calcareous matter by ferric oxide. Such, too, is the date 
and mode of origin of much of the manganese. The ores of lead, zinc 
and copper appear to be in all cases deposits from hot springs, and 
have arisen from below, instead of descending from above, as the Hama- 
tite has. 
(4) The behaviour of such dykes as the Cleveland Dyke, which is 
a remarkable vertical sheet of basalt, which crosses from east Yorkshire, 
through Teesdale, across the Eden at Armathwaite, and the Calda, or 
Caldew, at Dalston, and the Solway west of Dumfries, suggests that when 
this dyke was intruded some of the broadest features of Cumberland had 
already began to assume a little of their present form. The behaviour 
1 The exact age of the Whin Sill of Cumberland is not yet known : it may be of Tertiary 
age. 
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