‘DISCUSSION : FORESTS, RESERVOIRS, AND STREAM FLOW 485 
abounds in them. In 1898 the writer investigated with great care a Mr. Chitten- 
number of these springs in the vicinity of Huntsville, Ala., and could ia 
find no evidence that they are smaller now than faraterly, though in 
one case his evidence extended to the period before the Civil War. 
Important towns in various parts of the world rely upon such sources 
of supply. It is these springs that yield the bulk of the low-water 
flow of streams, so far as this comes from the ground, and it is not 
likely that their present volume is much less than before the forests 
were cut off. 
Springs of the other class come from shallow sources, the water 
reappearing in the near vicinity of where it soaks into the ground. 
Such springs are very copious in wet weather, and their aggregate 
volume probably exceeds that of the other class. But they are much 
less permanent, responding quickly to surface conditions and drying 
up much more completely than the deeper springs. It is within the 
knowledge of everyone who has rambled much through the country, 
either forest or open, that all such springs diminish greatly in dry 
weather and often disappear altogether. So far as springs have suf- 
fered at all from deforestation, it is this class which has suffered most. 
But it is wholly a mistake to assume that such springs did not gen- 
erally dry up when forests covered the country; and the actual de- 
ficiency since the woods have been cleared away is probably much 
less than popularly supposed. The writer has observed these springs 
and the small streams in different kinds of forest, and knows, from 
experience in the handling and use of such sources of supply, that 
they are extremely variable with seasons and with precipitation con- 
ditions. 
At this point it is worth while to consider the evidence relating to 
this matter of the drying up of springs, wells, and little streams. It is 
for the most part hearsay evidence only, and of the most unreliable 
character. While the forest remains around a spring, the latter is 
ordinarily not closely observed. When the land is cleared, the-spring 
is generally brought into use. In the case of many small springs 
which the writer has observed, the demand upon them has greatly 
increased with the development of the country, and their capacity has 
become deficient. Under such circumstances the user is likely to say 
that the supply is growing less. In scarcely any case of the flow of 
a small spring is there a reliable record extending over a considerable 
time. 
In the case of wells of considerable age, the evidence is more definite 
that the water in them stands lower than it did when they were built; 
also, that new wells have to be dug deeper than formerly; and this is 
said to be due to the removal of the forests. Again, “after this, there- 
fore on account of this” is the only reason for connecting the two facts 
as effect and cause. There is only one thing that we know with cer- 
