24 Germany. 
hardwoods found throughout the empire, but especially 
highly developed in the west and southwest. In addi- 
tion there are half a dozen species of minor or more 
local importance, but the five mentioned form the basis 
of the forestry systems. 
Politically it may be mentioned that out of the very 
many independent principalities, variable in number 
from time to time, into which the German territory had 
been divided, the 26 which had preserved their autonomy 
formed in 1871 the federation of States, known as the 
German Empire. Each of these has its own representa- 
tive government including the forest administration, 
very much like the United States; only the army and 
navy, tariff, posts, telegraphs, railroads, criminal law 
and foreign policy, and a few other matters are under 
the direct jurisdiction of the empire, represented in the 
Reichstag, the Bundesrath and the Emperor. 
The history of the development of forestry in Ger- 
many may be divided into periods variously. Bernhardt 
recognizes six periods; Schwappach makes four divi- 
sions, namely, the first, from the earliest times to the 
end of the Carlovingians (911) which is occupied mainly 
with the development of forest property conditions ; the 
second, to the end of the Middle Ages (1500), during 
which the necessity of forest management begins to be 
sporadically recognized ; the third, to the end of the 18th 
century, during which the foundation for the develop- 
ment of all branches of forestry is laid; the fourth, 
the modern period accomplishing the complete estab- 
lishment of forestry methods in all parts of Germany. 
For the later historian it would be proper to recognize a 
