Cities and Colonization. 33 
In addition to the class of peasants and barons, there 
came into existence a third class, the burghers, when, by 
the order of Conrad I in the beginning of the 10th cen- 
tury, towns were built with walls and towers for defence 
against the encroachments of the Huns, who endangered 
the eastern frontier Mark. In order to encourage the 
settlement of these towns, any slave moving to town be- 
came a freeman; gifts of land, including forest areas 
were made to the cities, and the development of indus- 
tries was encouraged in every way, the cities becoming 
free republics. These cities in the later quarrels of the 
kings with the lawless nobility were favored by the 
former and, having become rich and powerful gave loyal 
support with money and arms. In return for their loans 
the forest properties of the kings were often mortgaged 
to the burghers; and, failing of redemption, were often 
forfeited to them. In this way and through purchases 
the city forests came into existence. 
Still other property conditions arose when, under Otto 
the Great (960), colonization of the eastern country be- 
yond the Elbe was pushed. In these cases the Mark in- 
stitution was absent, although the colonists did often 
become part owners in the king’s forest, or acquired 
parts of it as common property, or else secured rights of 
user in the nearest royal forest. 
By the end of the period, due to these various develop- 
ments, a great variety of property conditions in forest 
areas had developed, most of which continue to the pres- 
ent time, namely royal properties, which by the end of 
the eighteenth century and the beginning of the nine- 
teenth were in part to become state property ; princely and 
lordly possessions under separate jurisdiction, with or 
