34 Germany. 
without entail, and mostly encumbered with rights of 
user ; allodial possessions (held independent of rent or 
service) ; municipal possessions owned by city corpora- 
tions ; communal properties, the remnants of the Mark ; 
and farmers’ woodlots, resulting from partitions of the 
Mark. 
All these changes from the original communal prop- 
erty conditions did not, of course, take place without 
friction, the opposition often taking shape in peasants’ 
revolts; hundreds of thousands of these being killed in 
their attempts to preserve their commons, forests and 
waters free to all, to re-establish their liberty to hunt, 
fish and cut wood, and to abolish tithes, serfdom and 
duties. 
2. Forest Treatment. 
As stated, the German tribes which settled the coun- 
try were herders and hunters, who developed into farm- 
ers, while the country was being settled. At first 
therefore, as far as the forest did not need to give way to 
farm lands, its main use was in the exercise of the chase 
and for pasture, and especially for the raising and fat- 
tening of hogs; the number of hogs which could be 
driven into a forest serving as an expression of the size 
of such a forest, and the oak and beech furnishing the 
mast were considered the preferable species. It is nat- 
ural, therefore, that, wood being plentiful and the com- 
mon property of all, the first regulation of forest use 
had reference to these, now minor benefits of forest 
property, as for instance the prohibition of cutting mast 
trees, which was enforced in early times. The first ex- 
tensive regulation of forest use came from the exercise of 
