48 Germany. 
The consumption of fuel wood seems to have been 
enormous, for we find record of 200 cords used by one 
family in a year and of 1,200 cords or more used by the 
Court at Weimar during the same time. 
The substitution of turf and coal for firewood was 
ordered in 1697 and 1777 respectively, but only since 
1780 did coal come in as a surrogate. Tanbark peel- 
ing was also forbidden and only the bark of trees soon 
to be felled or of stocks was to be used. For cooperage 
only the top-dry oak was to be used ; for coffins only soft- 
wood, or according to Joseph II of Austria, no wood, 
but black cloth was to be used. 
Especially the use of oak was restricted, even as early 
as 1562, in some parts of the country. 
For regulating the practice in the forest the restric- 
tions took often only the general form of forbidding 
devastation, without specifying what that meant. 
Then, besides the diameter limit and the regulation of 
pasture to protect young growths, excluding sheep and 
goats entirely, an attempt was made to secure at least 
orderly procedure in the fellings. Foresters were to 
designate what was to be cut even for firewood. Mark- 
ing irons and hammers were employed for this purpose 
by the middle of the 15th century (usually two mark- 
ings, by forester and by inspector to check). 
And this designation by officials extended even into 
the private forest where finally no felling was allowed 
without previous permission and designation by a for- 
ester. 
The use of the litter by the small farmers had grown 
to excess in these times and it was thought desirable to 
stop it, but this aid to the poor peasant was so necessary 
