Forest Utilization. "3 
veloped, we may cite the fact that in the Harz, about 
1750, trees were dug with their roots, in order to utilize 
more of the body-wood and the root-wood. In 1757 we 
find stump-pulling machines described. 
In measurement of standing trees the circumference 
at breast-height was measured with a chain, and for the 
body-wood when felled the mean diameter was employed. 
As regards the felling time, specific advice is found in 
many forest ordinances which recommend mostly win- 
ter felling, stating the proper beginning and end of 
the season by the phases of the moon, the rule being that 
all white wood, for example conifers, beech and aspen 
should be felled on the increase or waxing of the moon, 
oak, at the waning, but coppice because it is desired to 
secure a new growth, at the waxing moon. Prescription 
was also made sometimes regarding the time by which 
the removal of the wood from the felling area was to be 
finished (May to June). 
Means of transportation were poor up to the end of 
the period; snow, as in the United States, was in the 
Northern country the main reliance for moving the 
wood. River driving, both with, and without rafts was 
well organized; various systems of log-slides were de- 
veloped to a considerable extent; in one place even an 
iron pipe, 900 feet in length, is reported to have been 
used. in such capacity. 
Originally the consumer cut his own wood, but in the 
middle of the 17th century special wood-choppers appear 
to have been employed, for in 1650 mention is made 
in Saxony of men who were placed under oath and 
were organized for the exploitation of the different 
classes of wood. A system of jobbers came into existence 
