118 Germany. 
Prussia, the North German Federation instituted the 
Zollverein (Tariff alliance). Import duties were, how- 
ever, again established in 1879, and the policy of protect- 
ing the established organized forest management against 
competition by importations from exploiting countries 
has been more and more recognized as proper in the re- 
vision of tariff rates and railroad freight rates on the 
government railroads. 
During the first decades of the century, the supply 
question was uppermost, and although such men as 
Pfeil (1816) laughed at the idea of a wood famine, there 
was good reason, prior to the development of railroads, of 
coal fields, of iron and steel manufactures, etc., for dis- 
cussing with apprehension the area and condition of sup- 
ply and the extent of the consumption. Nevertheless 
the attitude of the state toward private property was 
much more influenced by the economic theories then 
prevalent, which taught the ideas of private liberty to 
which the French Revolution had given such forcible 
expression. 
With the change of the different municipal communi- 
ties into units or parts of political or state machines, 
whereby independence in the management of their prop- 
erty was secured, many of the old restrictions fell away. 
Curiously enough, during the French domination under 
Napoleon, the new masters, forgetting the spirit of the 
revolutionary period, introduced the prescriptions of the 
old French ordinance of 1669 which restricted the use 
of communal property to the extent of excluding the 
owners entirely from the management of their property, 
placing it under government officers. After the French 
withdrew, this method, of course, collapsed, although it 
