Forestry Education. 135 
9. Means of Advancing Forestry Science. 
During the century the means of increasing knowledge 
in forestry matters have grown in all directions, schools, 
associations, journals and prolific literature attesting 
the complete establishment of the profession and prac- 
tice. 
The master schools which began to take shape at the 
end of the last century and a number of which were 
found in the beginning of the century as private institu- 
tions were usually either of short duration or were 
changed into state institutions: they became either 
“middle schools” for the lower service, or else acad- 
emies. For the higher education the chairs of forestry 
at the universities continued to do service, as at Heidel- 
berg, Giessen, Leipzig, Berlin, etc., but as these were 
mostly occupied by Cameralists (although Hartig in 
1811 filled a chair at Berlin), and were intended for the 
benefit of such rather than of professional foresters, 
-the education of the latter was somewhat neglected. 
Most of the existing institutions had their beginnings in 
private schools. Both these and the state schools passed 
through many changes. The first high class forest 
academy was established directly by the state at Berlin, 
1821, in connection with the university, where Pfeil was 
the only professor, the other subjects being taught by 
other university professors. The fact that a demonstra- 
tion forest was not easily accessible in the absence of 
railroads, and perhaps the friction between Pfeil and 
Hartig brought about a transfer to Neustadt-Ebers- 
walde, in 1830, with two professors till 1851, when a 
third professor was added (now 16 with 8 assistants!). 
At the same time the lectures at Berlin under Hartig 
continued until 1837. 
