136 Germany. 
In Saxony Cotta’s private school became a state in- 
stitution in 1816, the forest academy of Tharand, with 
six teachers (now 11), and later, in 1830, an agricultural 
school was added to it. In Bavaria a private school 
was begun in 1807 at Aschaffenburg. It was made a 
state institution, divided into a higher and lower school, 
in 1819, but was closed in 1832 on account of interior 
troubles and inefficiency. It was reopened and reorgan- 
ized in 1844 with four teachers, and was intended to pre- 
pare for the lower grades of the service. Meanwhile the 
lectures at the University of Munich, supplementing this 
lower school, were to serve for the education of the 
higher grades. The reorganization took place in 1878, 
when a special faculty for forestry was established with 
Gustav Heyer as head professor. This was done after 
much discussion, which is still going on throughout the 
empire, as to the question whether education in forestry 
was best obtained at a university or at a special academy. 
The present tendency is toward the former solution of - 
the question since railroad development has removed the 
main objection, namely, the difficulty of reaching a de- 
monstration forest. Nevertheless Prussia retains its two 
forest academies Eberswalde and Miinden (since 
1868)for the education of its forest officials, the other 
state academies being at Tharand and Eisenach, while 
chairs of forestry are found at the universities of 
Tiibingen (since 1817), Giessen (since 1831), and 
Munich, and for Baden at the polytechnicum in Karls- 
ruhe (1832). For the lower grades of forest officials 
there are also schools established by the various govern- 
ments (3 in Prussia, 5 in Bavaria). 
Although as early as 1820 Hundeshagen had in- 
