438 THE PENN MONTHLY. [JuNE, 
ance of pain; in other words, that all acts are due to motive, and 
are the expression of design on the part of the actor. This is as 
true of the simplest as of the most complex actions of animals, 
whether consciously or unconsciously performed. The movement 
of the Amoeba in engulfing a Diatom in its jelly, is as much de- 
signed, as the diplomacy of the statesman or the investigations of 
the student. And the motive may be the same in all three cases ; 
viz.: hunger. But as the unconscious acts have been probably 
derived from conscious ones by organization, a fundamental clas- 
sification must first recognize their relations to the two necessary 
terms of consciousness, the subject and the object. All actions 
may then be divided into two classes ; those which are performed 
with the design of securing the pleasure of the subject, and those 
whose motive is to secure pleasure for the object as distinct from, 
z. é. opposed to, that of the subject. The tendencies thus defined 
have been named, in other connections, the appetent and the altru- 
istic, and these names may be preserved as equally appropriate for 
the present purpose. Actions of the appetent class differ accord- 
ing to the developmental grade of the animal displaying them, or 
the grade of the organ of the body to which they are proper. In 
their simplest form they are mechanical movements, following a 
stimulus without the intervention of any rational process; the end 
being attained by movements, whose directions are determined by 
mechanical or physical laws only. Such acts belong to the low- 
est type of animals, and are also seen in the organic functions of 
all animals; they may be called the azaesthetic division. They 
may be performed consciously or unconsciously. Acts of another 
order are those which, while due to stimuli, are directed bya pro- 
cess of ratiocination. They are higher than those of the previous 
order because they successfully accomplish their object under 
changing circumstances, to which they adapt themselves as the 
others cannot. Like them they may be performed in conscious- 
ness or in unconsciousness, or in a still higher state of the mind, that 
of self-consciousness. The last condition is only possible to ani- 
mals of a high order of intelligence, since it not only demands an 
exercise of the rational faculty, with reference to objects, but also 
with reference to itself—the subject. These three groups form the 
rational order. The unconscious actions of both the anaesthetic 
and rational kinds, are called “reflex;” and all of them are “auto- 
matic,” in so far as they are performed without will; terms more 
