SOP 



SOP 



according to fomething which is merely accidental to it. 

 A diBo fecundum quid ad diditm Jimpliciter, arguing from 

 that which is true in particular circumftances, to prove the 

 fame thing true abfolutely, fimply, and abltrafted from all 

 circumftances, and tike verfd : the fophifms of compofition 

 and divilion, when we infer any thing concerning ideas in a 

 compounded fenle, which is only true in a divided fenfe, 

 and vice verfd: and the fophifms arifing from an abufe of 

 the ambiguity of words : to which may be added an imper- 

 feft enumeration, or falfe induftion, when from a few ex- 

 periments and ohfervations, men infer general theorems 

 and UFiiverfal propofitions. Watts's Logic, p. iii. c. 3. 

 fed. I. 



Thefe fophiltical modes of reafoning, or logical quibbles, 

 called by Arillotle Erillic fvllogifms, were introduced into 

 the Megaric fchool, founded by Euclid of Megara, (fee 

 his article,) by Eubulides of Miletus, who in that fchool 

 fucceeded Euclid ; but as they furnifhed merely examples 

 of egregious trifling, they deferve no farther notice. The 

 Stoics alfo amufcd tliemfelves with quibbles and fallacies of 

 the fame kind wilh (hofe of the Megaric fchool, of which 

 the following example will be iuf&cient. Protagoras the 

 fophift (fee Protagoras) agreed to indruft a youn;r man 

 in eloquence for a large fum, one half of which was to be 

 paid in hand, the other half upon his fird fuccefsful plead- 

 ing in the courts. Neglecting to plead for a long time 

 after Protagoras had completely inftrufted him in the art 

 of rhetoric, the fophill lued him for the remaining msicty 

 of his Itipend. Each pleaded his own caufe. Protagoras 

 urged, that which way foever the caufe was determined, 

 the young man muft complete the payment : for if the caufe 

 was determined again/l the defendant, the payment would 

 be granted him by judgment ; if for him, the payment 

 would be due according to agreement. The young man, 

 on the contrary, pleaded, that if the caufe was determined 

 in hit favour, he (hould be excufed from the payment by 

 the decifion of the court ; if againjl him, Protagoras, by 

 his own agreement, could have no demand upon him. The 

 fubtlety of thefe pleas perplexed the judges ; and, without 

 commg to any determination, they difmifled the court. 



Sophisms, or Sophijlical Arguments, among Logicians, are 

 more particularly fuch as are not in form, or are founded 

 on equivocals. 



As, Tou have every thing you have not lojl ; but you have 

 not loft horns, therefore you have horns. 



SOPHIST, 'iLcUTi:, formed from c-o^o?, "juife, or rather 

 from u-ocirn:, impqflor, deceiver, a perfon who frames fo- 

 phifms ; that is, ules fubtle arguments, with defign to de- 

 ceive thofe whom he would perluade or convince. 



The term fophill, which is now reproachful, was anciently 

 honourable, and carried a very innocent idea. St. Auguf- 

 tine obferves, it fignifies a rhetor, or profeflbr of eloquence ; 

 fuch as were Lucian, Athensuo, Libanius, &c. Suidas, 

 and after him Olar. Celfius, in an cxprefs diliertation on 

 the Greek fophifts, tells us, that the appellation was ap- 

 plied indifferently to all who excelled in any art or fcience ; 

 whether divines, lawyers, phyficians, poets, orators, or 

 muficians. 



However, as rhetoricians often employed their art rather 

 to vindicate what was falfe and unjuft, than to fupport 

 truth and virtue, their ccndntt brought a difcredit both 

 upon themfelves and t heir profelTion ; and, therefore, the 

 fame fophi/i, fomttimcs cmifounded with that of fophi/ler, 

 has been ufed in an ill fenfe, to li^nify a fpecious but falfe 

 reafoner, one flcilled ratlii-r in the arts (if cavilling than 

 qualified to fpeak well and accurately upon any fubjeft. 



Solon is the firlt who appears 10 have ever borne the ap- 



pellation of fophift, which is given him by Ifocrates; after- 

 wards, it was fcarcely ever given, except to philofophers and . 

 declaimers. 



In the time of Socrates, there was in Athens a large 

 body of profeffional preceptors of eloquence, diftinguifhcd 

 by the appellation of fophifts. By the mere pomp of 

 words, thefe men made a magnificent difplay of wifdom, 

 upon a flight foundation of real knowledge ; and they 

 taught an artificial ilrufture of language, and a falfe me- 

 thod of reafoning ; by means of which they were able, in 

 argument, to make the worfe appear the better caufe. 

 Whilft they arrogated to themfelves the merit of every kind 

 of learning, they pubhcly praftilcd'theart of difputing wilh 

 y>laufibility on either fide of any queftion, and profelfed to 

 teach this art to the Athenian youth. By theleimpofing 

 pretenfions, they coUefted, in their fchools, a numerous 

 train of young men, wiio followed them in hope of acquiring 

 thofe talents, which would give them influence and autho- 

 rity in popular affembhes. In fuch high repute were thefe 

 fophifts, that they were hterally fupported, not only by 

 contributions from their pupils, but by a regular falary 

 from the ttate ; and were in many inflances diftinguilhed by 

 public honours, and employed in offices of magiftracy. Of 

 their enmity to Socrates, we have given an account under 

 his biographical article. 



The title fophijla was in great credit among the Latins in 

 the twelfth century, and in the time of St. Bernard ; but it 

 began to lofe ground in Greece as early as Plato's time ; on 

 account of Protagoras and Gorgias, who made a fordid 

 traffic of it, by felling eloquence for money. Hence Seneca 

 calls the fophifts quacks, or empirics. 



Cicero fays, that the title fophijli was in his time given 

 to fuch as profefied philofophy with too much oftentatioii, 

 in order to make a trade of it, by running from town to 

 town, to retail their deceitful fcience. A fophift, there- 

 fore, was then, as now, a rhetor, or logician, who makes 

 it his bufinefs to enfnare and perplex people, by frivolous 

 dillinftions, vain reafonings, and captious difcourfes. 



Nothing has conduced more to the increafing of the 

 number of fophifts than the contentious fchool-philofophy : 

 people are there taught to puzzle and obfcure the truth, 

 by barbarous unintelligible terms ; as, antipredicaments, 

 great and little logicals, quiddities, &c. 



The title fophift was given to Rabanus Maurus, by way 

 of eminence. John Hinton, a modern Englifh fcholaftic 

 writer, endeavoured alfo to procure the fplendid title o( 

 fophift. 



SOPHISTICATION, in Chemijlry, Alchemy, &c. a 

 term particularly apphed to the counterfeit works of frau- 

 dulent alchemifts, who uie indireft means of whitening 

 copper, gilding filver, and giving other fuperficial tinAures 

 to metals ; as alfo of making augmentations, by divers mix- 

 tures, and other illegal operations, to delude thofe at whofe 

 fxpence they are employed. 



Hence the term is alio applied to merchandizes, and 

 other goods adulterated, mixed, or altered, by the deceit 

 of the feller. 



SOPHOCLES, ill Biography, a celebrated tragic poet, 

 was born at Athens about the year 497 B.C. He received 

 an education in every way fnitable to his rank in life ; and it 

 appears that he was but a youth, when the monuments of 

 the viftory over Xerxes were fixed up at Salamis, and then 

 he went at the head of a chorus of noble birth, whofe fong 

 of triumph he led by the llrains of liis lyre. He iirft ap- 

 plied himfelf to lyric pocliy ; but the fame acquired by 

 iEfchylus, tae author, or at leaft the great reformer, of 

 Grecian tragedy, induced him to try his powers in that 

 Z r z fpcciei 



