1s J. F. CAMPBELL ON GLACIAL PERIODS. 
about the base of grounds on which contour lines are close together, 
and take the shape of irregular closed figures about peaks. 
$2. The next ‘‘ belt ” below 14,000 feet is from 10 to 17 miles wide. 
In it are ‘“‘ needles,” of which Nunda Devi is 25,669 feet high ; and 
there are very narrow deep valleys. Of one gorge the reporter 
says :—‘‘ The steepness of the gorge may be conceived when it is 
understood that the direct horizontal distance from Hasaling snowy 
peak to the Gori River is rather less than 1? mile, and that it towers 
14,000 feet above it.” That gives a base of 9160 feet, and a ver- 
tical side of 14,000 feet, which sides give a steep third side to the 
triangle. My sketches from Landour give some distant idea of these 
hill-sides. In all mountain countries streams that have cut “‘canons ” 
flow in hollows of this kind, which are deep, or long, or short in pro- 
portion to their age. They are valleys of erosion, and end above at a 
waterfall in general. 
§ 3. Zone the third is described as a region of “ spurs,” 6 to 7 miles 
wide, at an average height of 12,000 feet. By this I suppose that 
Mr. Ryall means the land left between the canons in zone the 
second. 
In these three zones, between 25,000 and 12,000 feet, the sur- 
veyors are called “ a snow party,” and glaciers are mentioned inci- 
dentally as difficulties walked over. Alpine climbers will recognize 
in this description the steep ground about the sources of European 
rivers in the Alps, where glaciers are at work now. 
§ 4, The next region is about 50 miles wide, at an average height 
of 7000 feet. It is ‘much waterworn;” that is to say, a wide slope 
is very deeply furrowed by branches of the larger and longer rivers, 
which come from the watersheds through belts which are measured 
by about 38 horizontal miles and 18,000 vertical feet. I measured 
slopes near Simla which make an angle of near about 70°; 45° and 
30° are usual slopes. At Darjeeling the valley is 6000 feet deep, and 
the base of one side is about 4 miles. Surveyor’s levels cross furrows 
by flashing rays at an average of 7000 feet above the sea. The tops 
suit Huropean constitutions, so they dwell in this “ belt.” 
§ 5. The last “zone” is the “Shivalik zone,” with an average 
breadth of 8 miles and a height of 4000 feet. 
The plain region begins at about 1000 feet, and extends some 
thousands of miles to the Ganges delta. Within three “ belts,” 
38 miles wide, are glaciers. In the remaining lower belts, 58 miles 
broad, ought to be old glacier-marks, if the country ever was like 
Lombardy during a general Glacial period. On similar ground I 
found only marks of pluvial erosion. My distant conclusions corre- 
spond to the work of those young athletes who risked their lives in 
climbing, and were nearly starved, though Government servants, 
equipped with camps, and clothed with the majesty of the British 
Raj. 
It is the custom of Anglo-Indians who go to Simla for health to 
make expeditions into “the interior.” They travel on roads con- 
structed by engineers which follow ridges between streams, and fol- 
low the Sutlej valley where the higher ridge is furrowed by branch 
