128 J. F. CAMPBELL ON GLACIAL PERIODS, 
Folds in the structure of disturbed rocks are very plainly seen on 
both sides of the Atlantic, and they do not correspond to the outer 
surface on either side of the ocean. From the valley of the Rhone 
and from Lake Bourget, at Aix-les-Bains, all the way up to Mount 
Cenis, up arise of about 2300 feet, and down again to the plains 
of Lombardy, at Rivoli, glacial marks were conspicuous during an 
express-train run of about 10 hours. Moraines and moraine stuff, 
big stones, glaciated rock-surfaces, and later water-furrows, with their 
deltas, are conspicuous between the tunnel and Turin, in the valley 
and on its sides and in railway-works: the record is very plain. I 
judged that a glacier was more than 2000 feet deep when it reached 
the plain at Rivoli. That plain, again, suggests standing water by 
its flatness ; it looks like a bit of the bottom of the sea. From the size 
of the water-furrows, the Italian glacier melted a long time ago. All 
these ridges and rock-grooves bear records of erosion by flowing ice and 
by running water. ‘They certainly are not folds in the folded beds of 
which these highlands are made. ‘The latest glacial record has been 
partially destroyed by water ; but so long as scratched stones and 
erratics remain on the surface and ridges and grooves retain their 
curved section, this record may be deciphered by experts. It has 
been read by many. From the base of the Alps to the end of Italy 
water-furrows become more and more conspicuous; but from the 
general outline of these highlands, it seems probable that experts 
may yet find ice-marks where snow falls. Snow falls and outlasts 
summer on Greek hills and on Candia, whose top is about level with 
Darjeeling. Snow fell at Malta in April, 1877. On the American 
coast of the Atlantic ice was at work down to the latitude of Suez, 
30°, about Charleston. But the world’s climate had not altered 
generally. 
The slopes of Vesuvius, Stromboli, and Etna, the coasts of the Red 
Sea, and the Arabian volcanic island of Gib-el-tir, are newly-formed 
volcanic surfaces or spots in the hottest and driest of known climates. 
There is no question of recent glacial action on these surfaces. The 
wearing certainly is water-work with which to compare other worn 
surfaces. The African Red-Sea coast is chiefly horizontal-bedded 
rock, much furrowed vertically by occasional heavy rains. Gib-el- 
tir is surrounded by a raised sea-margin, comparable to others on 
the Atlantic coast or elsewhere, between the North Cape of Europe 
and. the base of the Alps. This volcanic island has been raised 
bodily after it had been worn all round by waves at the old sea-level. 
One side is a ‘Cliff and Talus,” a recent fracture undermined 
by waves and furrowed by rains. The fresh fracture has been 
freshly worn and shows the structure of a cone of eruption which is 
900 feet high, and smokes occasionally still, according to the charts. 
The temperature of sea-water was 90°, according to the log of the 
engineer of the ‘ Hydaspes,’ in September 1876, at the end of the 
Red Sea. 
On my return to Europe in April 1877, only two months from 
Darjeeling, I took a cast through Northern Italy to compare the base 
of the Alps, about lat. 45°-46° N., with the base of the Himalayas 
