Dec. 2i, 1888.] 



SCIENTIFIC NEWS, 



633 



is obvious, then, that we have to consider the human hand 

 only as presenting the most perfect combination of parts, 

 and exhibiting the bones and muscles, which in different 

 animals are suited to particular purposes, so combined as 

 to perform actions the most minute and complicated, 

 consistently with powerful exertion. During an explana- 

 tion of the bones and mechanism of the arm and hand, 

 the lecturer showed, with regard to the elbow joint, a 

 mere bending and straightening was all that was neces- 

 sary for purposes of simple locomotion, but that in those 

 animals who use the hand for other purposes — as for 

 digging or burrowing — it was necessary they should be 

 able to rotate the hand, and therefore the two bones of 

 the forearm are so constructed that they can partially roll 

 over each other, giving rise to the movements of prona- 

 tion and supernation of the hand. It might be imagined 

 that the easy motion of the hand resulted from the struc- 

 ture of the hand itself; but on the contrary, the 

 movements which appear to belong to it are divided 

 amongst the bones of the whole extremity. The power 

 of opposing the thumb to any of the other fingers is the 

 chief characteristic of the hand of man. Without the 

 thumb the power of the fingers would avail nothing, and 

 accordingly the large ball formed by the muscles at its 

 base is the distinguishing characteristic of the hand of an 

 expert workman. As we progress downwards through 

 the animal kingdom, in every instance where the fingers 

 become rudimentary the thumb is the first withdrawn. 

 In the quadrurnana, which comprises apes and monkeys, 

 the thumb may be entirely wanting, but when present it 

 is more or less opposed to the other digits, but to a less 

 extent than in man. In the bats we find a very curious 

 modification of the hand and arm to form a kind of wing, 

 all the digits, with the exception of the thumb, being ex- 

 ceptionally elongated, these elongated fingers being 

 united by an expanded membrane, which also extends 

 between the fore and hind limbs and the side of the 

 body. This membrane serves for flight. In the horse 

 and other hoofed animals the leg is used solely for loco- 

 motion, and modified accordingly. The characteristic 

 feature in the foot is that portion of the toe which 

 touches the ground being always encased in a hoof, or 

 greatly expanded nail. Dr. Greves took the fore leg of 

 a horse as a typical illustration of the hand adapted 

 purely to the purpose of locomotion, and by diagrams 

 explained how the fore limb was constructed to with- 

 stand shock, and beautifully adapted for strength and 

 elasticity. Taking the lower part of the leg, the wrist 

 was shown to occupy the middle of the leg, and to con- 

 stitute what is improperly called the knee. Below this 

 point is a most radical change in the arrangement of the 

 bones as compared with the hand of man : no resem- 

 blance at first sight seems to exist between them. Dr. 

 Greves carefully traced the connection in structure be- 

 tween the hand of horse and man, showing them to be 

 composed of the same elements, modified to suit in each 

 case their special uses. 



The lecturer, after describing the hand of the various 

 orders of animals, and explaining the special adaptation 

 in each case to the special use, made a few remarks on 

 the hand as an instrument of expression. 



Society of Chemical Industry (Edinburgh Board). — 

 On December 5th a paper on " Natural and Artificial 

 Foods for Farm Stock"' was read by Professor 

 Ivison Macadam. These foods, Ihe lecturer said, might 

 be divided into the substances on the farm itself, and 



those bought in by the farmer. He first discussed the 

 chemical and feeding properties of the grasses, cereals, 

 and roots classed under the first heading, and gave some 

 details as to the comparative feeding values of hay 

 obtained and grown in various counties in Scotland and 

 England, as well as from America, Canada, Germany, 

 Switzerland, and Algeria. Large quantities of hay, he 

 said, were annually shipped by the latter country to 

 Leith and other Scottish ports, and found a ready sale for 

 the winter feeding of sheep, etc. The process of making 

 ensilage was described, and the chemical properties ex- 

 plained, as well as the changes which plants undergo 

 when being made into ensilage. The process was 

 specially recommended in hill districts or in very wet 

 seasons, the principal drawback being the cost of the 

 necessary erections. Reference was then made to a 

 series of letters published during last summer, in which 

 the writer urged that the cereal crops in such very back- 

 ward seasons should be made into hay, and eaten in 

 that form either before or after being thrashed out from 

 the grain. Afterwards, the various seed cakes were 

 considered, and the method of manufacture explained, 

 also the substances with which they were adulterated 

 or mixed, and the paper was brought to a close by the 

 valuation of cakes for feeding and manurial purposes. 

 Specimens of the various substances mentioned in the 

 paper were on exhibition in the hall. Afterwards a 

 paper entitled "Note on Filter Stands" was read by 

 Mr. D. B. Dott, F.R.S.E., giving a description of a stand 

 to ensure the stability of filters while persons were work- 

 ing with chemicals ; and a paper was also read by Dr. 

 L. Dobbin, "On the Detection and Estimation of Caustic 

 Alkali in Presence of Alkaline Carbonates," which was 

 stated to be a test based on a new version of Nessler's 

 test for ammonia. 



Liverpool Geological Association. — This association 

 held a conversazione on December 3rd, which was 

 opened by the President, Mr. A. Norman Tate, F.I.C., 

 by a short address. He afterwards referred to the 

 exhibits of the evening, and some of their special fea- 

 tures. Amongst these exhibits were microscopes and 

 slides, shown by the President and others, illustrating 

 micropetrology, etc., also a large number of specimens 

 in connection with mineralogical science, these latter 

 being under the special charge of Mr. D. Clague, F.G.S., 

 and included a new goniometer and other novel instru- 

 ments now used in research, and illustrations of thei r 

 uses were given by Mr. Clague during the evening. 

 Some excellent photographs of Tarawera (New Zealand), 

 kindly forwarded by Professor Judd, F.G.S., were shown, 

 and Mr. Joseph Lomas, A.N.S.S., gave a short address on 

 the same district. There were also exhibited specimens 

 and diagrams of Arran pitchstone, and syenite, show- 

 ing metamorphism, and Maus rock specimens from 

 Castletown Bay by Mr. J. Hornell, and diagrams 

 showing glacial action in the same neighbour- 

 hood by the Secretary, Mr. J. E. George; sections 

 across the London basin by Mr. Joseph Lomas ; crushed 

 and weathered boulders from the boulder clay of this 

 district, by Dr. Ricketts, F.G.S. ; a model of the quarry at 

 Oxton, showing interesting geological features, by Mr. H. 

 C. Beasley; collection of coral by Mr. R.Wilson. There 

 were also shown by Mr. T. R. Connell, Vice-President, a 

 a fine work on fossil saurians, by Prof. Owen, and there 

 were many specimens and prize drawings by geological 

 students. 



