584 A SKETCH OP BABYLONIAN SOCIETY. 



the free estates indicates a period of transition from the feudal to the 

 centralized system. The former is, of course, the earlier, and bears 

 witness to a time when the families were absolutely independent. With 

 the growth of the central power, however, the importance and influence 

 of the old families diminished, and only now and then occurred a relapse 

 into the feudal system, such as, for instance, we learn from the char- 

 ters. Such privileged territories were generally held in the possession 

 of the old noble families. These also furnished the State with the entire 

 force of its dignitaries, and the high political offices very often descended 

 from father to son. 



The citizens were, indeed, as explained above, very different as 

 regards race and legal status, but soon* became amalgamated under the 

 influence of the higher civilization. 



The Babylonians appear to us enterprising and rather vindictive and 

 litigious, as shown by the numerous lawsuits. In their relations with 

 the gods they assumed the position of equals, and yet at the same time 

 displayed the deepest submission. They made offerings to the gods, 

 but also demanded favors in return. If a person had once committed 

 an offense, however, he could not lament sufficiently before the higher 

 powers. 



The family formed the focus of the whole life of the Babylonians, and 

 presented a united and unbroken front. Thus we often find the inter- 

 ests of the State and those of the family in conflict. The sharp sepa- 

 ration of the families from one another is easily explained by the former 

 nomadic life of these peoples. 



Since, moreover, the individuals of a clan were dependent upon one 

 another, the legal conception was gradually developed that the property 

 of an individual belonged not to himself, but to his whole family. We 

 may thus explain the fact that real estate could be sold only on condi- 

 tion that the other members of the family gave their assent or signified 

 their willingness by their presence while the bill of sale was being 

 drawn up. A further important factor in the development of the 

 family life is ancestor worship and the conceptions resulting from it, 

 which have had the greatest influence in the religious development of 

 the Semites. 



The families are, then, as we have seen, the actual units out of which 

 the State is composed. The individual members of the family stand, 

 therefore, in a somewhat freer position as regards the State; they feel 

 that they are first of all members of their own family, from which their 

 connection with the State results secondarily. 



The relation of the King to the subject was a double one. (1) The 

 king was the highest representative of the family, which implies the 

 conception of the whole State as one family. Under this conception 

 he was the representative of his subjects in their relations with the 

 gods, and had as such a great authority. (2) The kiug, however, did 



