A Theory of Solutions. lag 
even if we leave out of account the known facts that volume, 
refraction, &¢., are also additive properties in the homo- 
geneous state, it is certain that the earlier hypothesis of 
Clausius of dissociation in solutions explains that additive 
quality of electrolytes as well as the hypothesis of electro- 
lytic dissociation without contradicting in so many points 
the views of. the chemists. Even the idea that in analytic 
solution the ions are especially reactive is not a general 
one, for metal potassium decomposes water, and ion potassium 
does not react in spite of the great electric charge. 
There are only gradual differences in electric conductivity 
between dissolved electrolytes and nonelectrolytes. Even an 
aqueous solution of alcohol, ether, or sugar shows a molecular 
conductivity increasing with increasing dilution. In conse- 
quence of this fact, we are obliged to imagine that there are 
present in the solution free ions such as C,H;, O, &e.* In 
the same way we cannot believe that melted salts contain a 
great many free ions, and the fact that the osmotic pressure 
diminishes in many concentrated solutions with growing 
percentage tf awakens some doubts against the theory. 
One ot the most important objections against the hypothesis 
of Arrhenius is the circumstance that Guldberg and Waage’s 
Law does not agree with that hypothesis. The known formula. 
does not hold good for solutions of strong electrolytes. 
. Ina very high degree the theory has been shaken since the. 
investigations of osmotic and conductive phenomena haye 
been extended to solvents different from water such as 
SO,, NH;, CH;OH, &. There is in most cases no agree- 
ment between van’t Hoff’s values of 7 calculated by the osmotic 
and by the electric method ¢. 
In many cases the osmotic method shows an association of 
* Walden, Zettschr. Physik. Chem. xiiii. p. 385 (1903). This author 
concludes from investigations of electric conductivity of solutions con- 
taining Br,, I,, PBr,,SBr., &c., that even such substances are dissociated 
into ions. 
+ Kahlenberg, /. c. 
{ Walden, Zeitschr. Physik. Chem. xl. p. 513 (1902); Ber. d. d. chem. 
Ges. xxxiv. p. 4185 (1901), and xxxv. pp. 1764 & 2018 ( 1902) ; Zetschr. 
ft. anorg. Chem. xxv. p. 209; xxix. p. 871; xxx. p- 145; Carrara, Gazz. 
chim. Ital. xvi. p. 119 (1896), and xxvii. p. 207 (1897). Kahlenberg & 
Lincoln, Zettschr. f. Lilektrochem. y. p. 544 (1899). Franklin & Krauss, 
Amer. Chem. Journ. xx., xxi., xxiii, and xxiv. (1898-1900). See 
especially the computations by Jones, Zedtschr. Phys. Chem. xxxi. p. 187 
(1899), and Reychler, Les Théories Physiko-Chimiques Briissel, p. 278 
(1903), &c. > . : lene 
