Classification of Animals. 555 



many of which are already satisfactorily proved, and before the pub- 

 lic ; and which show, that although all natural groups are circles, yet 

 these circles are of different sizes, rank, and value, " therefore re- 

 quire particular names, that their comparative value may be under- 

 stood, and that they may become efficient instruments of reasoning." 

 He then adverts to and refutes the assertion that species are the 

 only divisions in nature, as they are found as much and as intimately 

 connected among themselves as genera. The ranks and gradations 

 of circular groups are found to be nine in number, and their names, 

 indicative of their relative value, are as follows : 1 . Kingdom ; 2. Sub- 

 kingdom ; 3. Class ; 4. Order ; 5. Tribe ; 6. Family ; 7- Subfamily; 

 8. Genus ; 9. Subgenus, which is the lowest description of group 

 yet discovered. For ourselves, we should have preferred the name 

 Genus for the lowest group, giving that to which it is now applied 

 another designation, say that of Domus ; but as the term Subgenus 

 has already received the sanction of the public, we cannot venture 

 to urge any further alteration. In confirmation of the universality 

 of these groups, examples of series from various departments of 

 zoology are given, each of which it appears are the result of a strict 

 analytical investigation by the author. Directions are afterwards 

 given for the discrimination of species, in which he dwells upon the 

 principal distinctions of form, sculpture, and colour ; the mode of 

 verifying a natural group is stated, by " ascertaining the circular 

 series of its contents, the parallel relation of its parts to other groups, 

 and the symbolical representation of the primary types of nature." 

 This part of the subject he illustrates by the familiar example of the 

 hedge-sparrow {Accentor modularise) whose analogies and station 

 are further exemplified by appropriate diagrams. The concluding 

 portion of the volume professes to be a " familiar explanation of the 

 first principles of practical and scientific zoology, with suggestions 

 for a plan of studying the details of each department." Of this 

 dissertation, particularly addressed to those who have first commen- 

 ced, or are about to commence, the study of zoology, we may brief- 

 ly remark, that it contains much valuable matter, and many excel- 

 lent hints and suggestions, as to the qualifications required, and the 

 course of study to be pursued, in order to gain that insight and 

 knowledge of the system of nature requisite to entitle the student 

 to the name of a good naturalist, in the proper and extended accep- 

 tation of the term. 



We now enter upon the Natural History and Classification of Ani- 

 mals, which forms another volume of Dr Lardner's valuable Cyclo- 



NO. VI. O 



