SCENERY AND SUPERFICIAL ASPECTS OF THE COUNTRY. 1 5 



The Ganges, and the S£rda, on the other hand, have their several 

 affluents originating in the great central chain of the Himalaya, 

 and melting glaciers and snow-fields go to form their icy streams. 

 Whilst these two large rivers cut straight through the Sub-Himalayan 

 zone without swerving, the two former rivers each take a con 

 siderable turn on entering it, — the Kosi very notably between Okal- 

 dhunga and Mohcin, and the Ramgangain its traverse along the Patli 

 dun. The distinction in this respect seems to be due partly to the 

 greater strength of the current in the case of the Ganges, which 

 enabled it to cut through the advancing flexure wave of the Siwalik 

 rocks, whilst, of the other two rivers, the Kosi was successfully turned 

 for some way by a similar flexure in the Nahan rocks, and the Ram- 

 ganga by one in the Siwaliks ; partly the difference may be due to a 

 fault along the Ganges where it escapes through the Sub-Himalayan 

 range — a fault due to great lateral wrenching of the strata as they 

 inbay in a direction up the present Ganges bed. The Gola, Nandhaur, 

 and Ladhia rivers come next in importance ; and they all show at 

 some point of their course in the Sub-Himalaya a longitudinal diver- 

 sion of their waters following the axes of folds. Of the streams which 

 rise in the Sub-Himalayan zone itself, the Sona and the Pelani 

 (Palaine) both fall into the Rdmganga. They and the Kalaunia are 

 the most characteristic of the younger rivers of this zone, which are 

 more than mere torrents. Their waters are pure and sweet ; and 

 they meander with much twisting and recurving upon themselves, in a 

 way quite unlike the streams and rivers of the higher Himalaya, which 

 run a more direct course. Many of these Sub-Himalayan streams 

 carry down with them a meagre quantity of gold, which is washed in 

 a small way during the rains. 



The periodical monsoon to which India is subject necessarily 

 causes a great and rapid increase in the volume of water carried down 

 by these rivers at that time of the year. Hence what is but a mere 

 trickle of water amongst vast beds of shingle during the cold weather, 

 becomes abroad and mighty torrent when the rains have fairly set in. 

 Snow-fed rivers, such as the Ganges and the S£rda, in addition have 

 their waters very much discoloured by the melting of the glaciers as 



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