THERMAL WATERS, GEYSERS. Y53 



steam in California, north of San Francisco, in Geyser Canon, a 

 branch from Pluton Canon. The waters have a temperature, accord- 

 ing to Whitney, of 206° to 207° ; and deposits of sulphur are formed 

 from them. Near Clear Lake, in Lake County, there is a " Borax 

 lake," holding borax in solution, and having a deposit of it, over its 

 bottom ; and, as Whitney observes, it is evidence of the action of hot 

 waters in former times. Other borax lakes occur at Lick Springs, 

 Tehama County, California, and in Esmeralda County, Nevada. Bo- 

 racic acid is held in solution in the hot waters of the Tuscan lagoons. 

 A water-and-gas geyser exists in the oil region of Western Penn- 

 sylvania (in the valley of Wilson's Run, four miles southeast from 

 Kane), in which hydrocarbon gas, and not steam, is the moving 

 agent ; and it is called the Kane Geyser. The accompanying figure 

 (Fig. 1127) is from a photograph received by the author from Mr. 

 C. A. Ashburner, accompanying a description by him of the geyser. 

 The well descends to a depth of 2,000 feet. It throws out a column of 

 water and gas periodically to heights varying from 100 to 150 feet — 

 the interval being, in the summer of 1879, about 13 minutes. The 

 gas of the columns is often lighted at night and " the antagonistic 

 elements of fire and water are promiscuously blended, at one moment 

 the flame being almost extinguished, but only to burst forth the next 

 instant with increased energy and greater brilliancy." Mr. Ash- 

 burner explains the action thus : " The water flows into the well on 

 top of the gas until the pressure of the confined gas becomes greater 

 than the weight of the superincumbent water, when an explosion takes 

 place and a column of water and gas is thrown to a great height." 

 The gas comes from the deep-seated rock that has yielded also the 

 oil, and some higher temperature than that of the surface was needed 

 for its production. 



The distinction between cold and warm mineral springs is of very little importance. 

 The waters derive the chief part of the salts in solution from the alteration of the 

 rocks or minerals within their reach. The soda and potash, yielded by the feldspars of 

 granites and various other rocks when these are acted on by means of carbonic acid, pro- 

 duce carbonates for such waters; and when rocks are decomposed by sulphur acids sul- 

 phates (alums, etc. 1 ) may result. Limestone decomposed by an acid yields carbonic acid, 

 to give waters " briskness," and help make chalybeate waters ; or to combine with other 

 mineral ingredients foluble or insoluble, and p*oduce other kinds of mineral waters. 

 The carbonic acid and sulphur gases for such results may also come from the decom- 

 position of vegetable or animal material. Nitrogen may become a bubbling gas of a 

 mineral spring through the absorption of the oxygen of the atmosphere of the earth 

 beneath by means of organic matters (pp. 704. 705): and sulphuretted hydrogen make 

 " sulphur springs " through decomposing pyrites (p. 705 1 ). The mineral waters of the 

 repion of Saratoga rise from a depth of more than 600 feet, borings to this depth, as 

 Chandler observes, having afforded similar waters: and hence they come from the 

 underlying Potsdam sandstone. They contain calcium, magnesium, sodium, and iron 

 bicarbonates, and sodium iodide and bromide, along with free carbonic acid, and some 

 commul salt, besides traces of other ingredients. 

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