Chap. XIV. Classification. 37 1 



taking the case of languages. If we possessed a perfect pedigree of 

 mankind, a genealogical arrangement of the races of man would 

 afford the best classification of the various languages now spoken 

 throughout the world ; and if all extinct languages, and all inter- 

 mediate and slowly changing dialects, were to be included, such an 

 arrangement would be the only possible one. Yet it might be that 

 some ancient languages had altered very little and had given rise 

 to few new languages, whilst others had altered much owing to the 

 spreading, isolation, and state of civilisation of the several co- 

 descended races, and had thus given rise to many new dialects and 

 languages. The various degrees of difference between the languages 

 of the same stock, would have to be expressed by groups subordinate 

 to groups ; but the proper or even the only possible arrangement 

 would still be genealogical ; and this would be strictly natural, as 

 it would connect together all languages, extinct and recent, by the 

 closest affinities, and would give the filiation and origin of each 

 tongue. 



In confirmation of this view, let us glance at the classification of 

 varieties, which are known or believed to be descended from a single 

 species. These are grouped under the species, with the sub-varieties 

 under the varieties; and in some cases, as with the domestic 

 pigeon, with several other grades of difference. Nearly the same 

 rules are followed as in classifying species. Authors have insisted 

 on the necessity of arranging varieties on a natural instead of an 

 artificial system; we are cautioned, for instance, not to class two 

 varieties of the pine-apple together, merely because their fruit, 

 though the most important part, happens to be nearly identical ; 

 no one puts the Swedish and common turnip together, though the 

 esculent and thickened stems are so similar. Whatever part is 

 found to be most constant, is used in classing varieties : thus the 

 great agriculturist Marshall says the horns are very useful for this 

 purpose with cattle, because they are less variable than the shape 

 or colour of the body, &c. ; whereas with sheep the horns are much 

 less serviceable, because less constant. In classing varieties, I ap- 

 prehend that if we had a real pedigree, a genealogical classification 

 would be universally preferred ; and it has been attempted in some 

 cases. For we might feel sure, whether there had been more or 

 less modification, that the principle of inheritance would keep the 

 forms together which were allied in the greatest number of points. 

 In tumbler pigeons, though some of the sub-varieties differ in the 

 important character of the length of the beak, yet all are kept 

 together from having the common habit of tumbling; but the 

 short-faced breed has nearly or quite lost this habit : nevertheless, 



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