﻿R. 
  S. 
  Tarr 
  — 
  Arctic 
  Sea 
  Ice 
  as 
  a 
  Geological 
  Agent. 
  223 
  

  

  Art. 
  XXI. 
  — 
  The 
  Arctic, 
  Sea 
  Ice 
  as 
  a 
  Geological 
  Agent; 
  by 
  

   Kalph 
  S. 
  Tarr. 
  

  

  Table 
  of 
  Contents. 
  

  

  "Nature 
  of 
  Sea 
  Ice. 
  Transportation 
  by 
  Sea 
  Ice. 
  

  

  Nature 
  of 
  Glacier 
  Ice. 
  Transportation 
  by 
  Glacier 
  Ice. 
  

  

  Influence 
  of 
  Sea-Made 
  Ice 
  on 
  Erosion. 
  Effect 
  on 
  Climate. 
  

   Erosion 
  by 
  Glacier 
  Ice. 
  

  

  Nature 
  of 
  Sea 
  Ice. 
  — 
  Floating 
  in 
  the 
  Arctic 
  waters 
  there 
  are 
  

   two 
  kinds 
  of 
  ice 
  — 
  the 
  sea-made, 
  and 
  the 
  glacier 
  ice. 
  The 
  

   former 
  develops 
  in 
  the 
  autumn, 
  first 
  freezing 
  over 
  the 
  pro- 
  

   tected 
  fjords 
  and 
  bays, 
  and 
  later 
  covering 
  the 
  greater 
  part 
  of 
  

   the 
  Arctic 
  sea. 
  As 
  it 
  freezes 
  it 
  encloses 
  the 
  glacier 
  ice 
  and 
  

   consolidates 
  the 
  entire 
  water 
  surface 
  into 
  one 
  mass 
  of 
  ice, 
  

   which 
  remains 
  in 
  this 
  state 
  until 
  spring. 
  The 
  sea-made 
  ice 
  

   attains 
  a 
  depth 
  of 
  only 
  a 
  few 
  feet, 
  averaging 
  perhaps 
  fifteen 
  or 
  

   twenty 
  feet. 
  The 
  wind, 
  waves 
  and 
  currents 
  move 
  it 
  about 
  

   somewhat 
  even 
  in 
  the 
  winter, 
  and 
  by 
  breaking 
  it 
  and 
  piling 
  

   the 
  fragments 
  on 
  one 
  another 
  make 
  the 
  surface 
  very 
  irregular, 
  

   greatly 
  increasing 
  the 
  depth 
  of 
  some 
  of 
  the 
  cakes. 
  Moved 
  

   hj 
  the 
  tides 
  and 
  winds, 
  it 
  grinds 
  against 
  the 
  shore 
  and 
  the 
  shal- 
  

   low 
  bottom, 
  thus 
  doing 
  much 
  work 
  of 
  erosion. 
  In 
  the 
  spring, 
  

   under 
  the 
  warmth 
  of 
  the 
  rising 
  sun, 
  it 
  commences 
  to 
  melt 
  and 
  

   goes 
  floating 
  away 
  to 
  the 
  southward, 
  where 
  it 
  finally 
  returns 
  

   to 
  the 
  liquid 
  condition. 
  Then, 
  hundreds 
  of 
  miles 
  to 
  the 
  south- 
  

   ward, 
  the 
  individual 
  cakes 
  and 
  scattered 
  floes 
  may 
  introduce 
  the 
  

   conditions 
  of 
  the 
  ice-bound 
  sea 
  of 
  the 
  north 
  into 
  the 
  southern 
  

   latitudes 
  even 
  late 
  in 
  the 
  summer. 
  

  

  Nature 
  of 
  Glacier 
  Ice. 
  — 
  Near 
  the 
  glaciers 
  which 
  end 
  in 
  the 
  

   sea, 
  the 
  surface 
  of 
  the 
  fjords 
  is 
  littered 
  with 
  ice 
  that 
  has 
  been 
  

   derived 
  from 
  the 
  glacier 
  front. 
  The 
  melting 
  in 
  the 
  warmth 
  of 
  

   the 
  sun, 
  the 
  movement 
  over 
  an 
  irregular 
  bottom 
  or 
  the 
  buoy- 
  

   ancy 
  of 
  the 
  water, 
  make 
  cracks 
  in 
  the 
  glacier 
  ; 
  and 
  the 
  action 
  of 
  

   the 
  waves 
  and 
  sea 
  water 
  at 
  its 
  base 
  undermines 
  the 
  ice 
  cliff, 
  so 
  

   that 
  there 
  is 
  a 
  constant 
  cracking 
  and 
  falling 
  of 
  bits 
  and 
  blocks 
  of 
  

   glacier 
  ice. 
  The 
  air 
  is 
  constantly 
  filled 
  with 
  the 
  reports 
  of 
  

   varying 
  intensity 
  which 
  accompany 
  the 
  breaking 
  off 
  of 
  ice. 
  

   Now 
  and 
  then 
  a 
  large 
  piece, 
  perhaps 
  a 
  great 
  section 
  of 
  the 
  

   glacier 
  front, 
  falls 
  away 
  and 
  enters 
  the 
  sea 
  as 
  an 
  iceberg. 
  

  

  This 
  glacial 
  ice, 
  of 
  whatever 
  origin, 
  encumbers 
  the 
  water 
  of 
  

   the 
  fjords 
  so 
  that 
  navigation 
  even 
  in 
  a 
  small 
  boat 
  is 
  usually 
  

   difficult. 
  Slowly 
  the 
  ice 
  drifts 
  out 
  to 
  sea, 
  for 
  the 
  summer 
  

   winds 
  prevail 
  from 
  the 
  glacier-covered 
  land, 
  and 
  hence 
  there 
  

   is 
  a 
  balance 
  maintained. 
  Were 
  it 
  not 
  for 
  these 
  off-shore 
  winds 
  

   the 
  glacier 
  would 
  soon 
  fill 
  the 
  fjord 
  with 
  ice, 
  and 
  not 
  being 
  

  

  