76 



FOREST AND STREAM. 



r or the truth: " Why, bless you boy. 

 fore-foot there'd be nothing for her to hold on with," is 

 something we have met with time and again, and the same 

 individual is one of a kind our readers have no doubt come 

 across as well. But the shining lights of the thumb-rule per- 

 suasion have .finally [had to succumb in this instance as in 

 many others. Their cherished hobby concerning ample fore- 

 foot is swept away before the irresistible march of science, 

 with the equally crude, undigested, and absolutely meaning- 

 less vagaries, which have been accumulating in the shape of 

 ' ' practical" lore of ye ancient builders ever since the days 

 when bold Noah is said to have gone down to the seas in n 

 drygood's box— family, cattle and all the world besides. 



".Fore-ioot" has gone to join "bottom to stand upon,' 

 " beam to carry sail," "sail to give speed," "water diving 

 underneath the bottom," " bell-bows ^to keep a vessel dry," 

 "end's head and mackerel tail," and the hundred and one 

 barbarisms, platitudes and cant phrases of the dying school of 

 wood-choppers. Their creed was handed down to them 

 from hoary generations, and they dared not depart from 

 the sanctified 'traditions of a long string of centuries, but 

 faithfully trod the crooked lanes of a former age, so remote 

 that the very origin gave to false conceptions an amount of 

 weight and popular acceptance altogether at variance with 

 their approach to fact, to logic or even common sense. 



It is our purpose to review in detail the dogmas of the 

 ancient school, lay bare their shortcomings and fallacious 

 foundation, and the small claim they have to the confidence 

 of men of a riper age ; and later on to enter into the consid- 

 eration of modern' naval design, with a view to diffusing 

 among the estimable " practical " class a higher appro 

 for that science which has created a complete revolution in 

 the hitherto clumsy methods of ship designing. 



To brush away the cobwebs of antiquity surrounding the 

 value of gripe will be an easy task, though at times our best 

 efforts to enlighten seem palsied when brought face to face 

 with the lamentable lack of familiarity with even the most 

 elementary mechanics by persons whose surroundings should 

 have taught them better, even though they lack the advan- 

 tages of professional education in their youth. How can we 

 hope to convince an individual, who, having had access to 



shipyards all his life-time, gravely announces that after 

 mature investigation— and ignorant of his own ignorance, he 

 proclaims himself a critic! — he has come to the conclusion 

 that there is no such thing as a permanent centre of lateral 

 resistance, but that when the jib is set a ship's bead pays off, 

 and when the mainsail is hoisted, it does not. Profound an- 

 nouncement— ergo, it is self-evident that the centre of lateral 

 resistance shifts from one end to the other and, accepted laws of 

 mechanics notwithstanding, it is therefore sheer nonsense to 

 assign a definite position to the centre! Vraiment, e'est 

 :ymt ea '. For such there is no hope, they are incurable. 

 But let us pass them by as unworthy further notice. 



For sake of illustrating why a yacht not only may be, but 

 other things being equal, always must be more weatherly 

 Without anyfore-foot than one of equal lateral resistance but 

 with a portion of her area incorporated in the shape of grips, 

 let us consider the annexed figure. It represents a vessel 

 with all her fore-foot cut away, her keel running down at a 

 sharp angle to meet the heel of the post. Let L be the 

 " effective centre of lateral resistance," and the dotted line 

 (J S a perpendicular through the "effective centre of 

 effort " of the sails. We use the word " effective " advisedly 

 in contradistinction to the " geometrical " centres, for under 

 the varying conditions of heel and trim of canvas, these 

 centres will depart somewhat from their designed position at 

 the upright. It is apparent that the vessel will have a tend- 

 ency to "come up," or luff, with a force equal to the arm E L 

 x the effective pressure on the canvas. In practice this 

 tendency — well named "ardency" by our French cousins- 

 is met by weather helm. At every easing of helm or wheel 

 the yacht will luff out in obedience to the statical couple 

 aforesaid, and will be continually " eating"' to windward. 



Now let her find her way out to sea or into lumpy water, 

 and her weatherliness in opposition to the boat of large gripe 

 will become very marked. Let the line X Y indicate a wave 

 slope ; the yacht in going through each sea will then < : 

 the immersed area of longitudinal section by only a com 

 tive small piece, M N 0. The centre L will shift alt to an 

 amount dependent upon the area of M N O, the distance 

 of its centre of figure from L. If, on the contrary, wc had, in 

 deference to the old school, carried the vessel's stem down 

 plumb, or nearly so, in a manner shown by the dotted line, it 

 is evident that in driving through a sea an area larger than 

 31 N by rlie piece N P would have been lifted from the 

 water, and for the time being go for naught in hole.; 

 ship to her course. Not only would the emersed area be 

 larger but its centre would also be further forward, sending, 

 in consequence, the centre of lateral resistance of the rcinniu- 

 ing Wet section much further aft than in the case first con- 

 sidered As the distance between E and L in a well designed 

 vessel should always be small, L might actually be sent aft of 

 E and the statical couple be reversed, the tendency of the 

 vessel then being to fall off or ease away to leeward. The 

 more rupully she rises and falls to the sea, the more would 

 she drop off, for it is impossible to counteract her every 

 motion by a jerk of the helm. Should such an attempt be 



it would he as fatal to potting a cup as her lei 

 tendencies when left to their own device- Iu 

 swell the yacht may be "met" to advantag 

 now and then, but in a lop such coach uestiori. 



With these remarks the whole question of weather] i 

 far as gripe has anything to do with it, has, we trust, been made 

 clear to all. The greater weatherliness of a vessel with round 

 up forward, iB due to the simple fact that she shifts her centre 

 of lateral resistance to a less extent in pitching in a seaway 

 than her sister supplied with a more liberal allowance of gripe. 



Those who have $ practical evidence of the 



advisability of cutting up forward are referred to the perform- 

 ances of America, Oo-nu-l, Clytie, Olio, 

 home, and abroad to such famous wind jammers . 

 Beabelle, and the incomparable Jnllanar, whose weatherliness 

 could not. possibly be impn 

 Let. us hear no more about " fore-foot to hold on with." 



WINTER LECTURES OF THE SEA- 

 WANHAKA YACHT CLUB.— No. L 



By A. Cabet Smith, Esq., S. Y. 0., N. Y. Y. C. 



ON KEELS AND THBIB CONSTRUCTION. 



AS the keels of vessels are chieily the means of getting 

 lateral resistance, it would at first sight seem that the 

 more keel immersed the better ; but wdien we examine more 

 closely into the laws of fluids, it will be found that such is 

 not necessarily the case. The problem, strictly, stated, is 

 how to make the least surface do the most work. For sur- 

 face friction is an important fraction in the resistance of a 

 vessel, hence the need of keeping keel surface to the lowest 

 limit consistent with weatherly qualities, Experiment also 

 shows that when the water once has been parted, the effective 

 lateral resistance grows less and less as one approaches the 

 after end of the boat. This is borne out by Bland with small 

 models, and proof is not wanting in vessels of full size. In 

 general, laws similar to those governing the water lines would 

 seem to be most beneficial to lateral resistance combined 

 with as small surface as possible ; an easy entrance with the 

 ; i ii width aft of midships and a full round curve aft. 

 Since we want to hang a rudder to the after end, it is 

 Customary to keep the sternpost plumb or nearly so. 



It is still held by a good many that a deep fore-foot is 

 needed to make a vessel "hang on" in a seaway; but ex- 

 perience does not show this ; the old America has scarcely 

 any fore-foot and she is, perhaps, the most weatherly keel 

 boat we have. The English yawl Jullanar is another con- 

 spicuous illustration, and shows very plainly the possibility 

 of combining great weatherliness without fore-foot. She 

 draws only 14in. forward and 13ft. Oin. aft, with the stern- 

 post about 15ft. from the after end of water-line. The im- 

 mersed area compared with the depth by length of water- 

 iine is very small, yet her record proves her to be the most 

 weatherly in a seaway of the entire British racing fleet, while 

 she Is also very quick in stays, a matter of consequence in 

 short working. The same result can be obtained by reduc- 

 ing the draught forward and rounding up the keel aft, leav- 

 ing the sterupost perpendicular. Such an outline brings the 

 centre of lateral resistance well aft and allows us to carry 

 less bowsprit, an advantage which will not be questioned. 

 This form of keel holds good even in shallow centreboard 

 boats, the Comet and Clio having almost no fore-foot, and 

 both are remarkable for weatherly qualities. 



In relation to the practical construction of keels, it may be 

 said that they have been made as thin as possible and deep. 

 This is a good form for speed, but very weak in construction, 

 except perhaps in small boats. When a vessel with a thin 

 and deep keel takes the ground away from a dry dock, it is 

 very unpleasant, and yet most keel boats are built in this 

 manner. Where a keel is thin, there is little hold for the 

 floor timbers, and if the garboard strake is as thick as it 

 should be there is only little wood to cut the rabbet into. 

 As all bolts must be driven near the centre line, there is very 

 little solid wood left to put in fresh ones iu the event of re- 

 pairs being needed, and a deep keel, if thin, is always in 

 danger of being twisted off, should the vessel ge 



If it is intended to carry lead on the keel it must t>e i i 



very thick or with ample "siding," and in large vi 

 not. project much below the planking. The cutter Vindex 

 had lead put on her keel and it certainly was a great help to 

 her, making her stand up better and without perceptibly 

 changing her behavior otherwise. The Volante has likewise 

 lead outside, and she is certainly a very able and safe craft, 

 and can go on a cruise quite as well as a larger vessel. The 

 English cutter Alarm was originally ballasted With shot and 

 uie, and was not able to hold her own with the new 

 cutters. Her ballast was ripped out and lead put on her keel 

 as well as inside, whereupon she was once more able to cope 

 with the best of the racing cutters. The A larm is not a very 

 narrow boat, but about the proportions of the .Sappho. Lead 

 on the outside of a wide shallow boat will always lead to dis- 

 appointment, making her very rigid and uneasy in rough 

 water. 



We will now consider the construction of the keel for a 

 yacht of 40ft. water-line. For so small a vessel it can readily 

 be obtained in one piece, and should have a siding of nearly 

 12m., with 2ft. Oin. below the plank. The strength of such 

 a keel will sustain the weight of the boat. If it is proposed 

 to put lead on, it must fay against the main keel, and the ends 

 should terminate in a Sfarph Bhape, so that a bolt can be put 

 through both keel and lead. Metal pieces should also over- 

 lap the job ■ and be bolted through 



The forward end of the keel, or "fore-foot," may round up 

 so much that we cannot get. a piece to work to the whole 

 crook, so we must have recourse to an additional piece on 

 top of the main keel, to which the stem is finally I 

 or we may find a knee that will work long enoUjj 

 away with the additional Keel piece. Wheu the keel is set 

 up, the position of the frames is marked, so tint all fasten- 

 ings through the keel may be evenly spread. There should 

 through bolt" between each frame, a short or 

 "blunt-bolt" fin dfaio through the heel of each futtuck, 

 and a 1 '.in. bolt through the floor timber, keel and lead, set 

 up with a nut aud washer. Iu this way the fastening is 

 evenly spaced, and bolls are put through the whole length of 

 the keel to the best advantage and economy. T± 

 may be of plain iron, or galvanized, th iugb rarely so, as in a 

 good job, if well driven, they will last a long time. The ob- 

 ject of using such large bolts thron owing to 

 the fact that lead wastes away the iron. if the poi 

 coppered, the outside ends ot the holts must be v,< 11 

 wiih wooden plugs dipped in white lead to prevent contact 

 wit i . ihee. | ', tent corrosion ot the b 



Concerning the lining ol the garboard, it may In' BStid II' .J 

 :englh depeuds upon the manner 

 of fitting it. It should, in the vessel now under considera- 

 tion, lira at leasL Oin. from the top of the keel, and the rabbet 

 should be made to take a gin. pi ink, though the latter may 

 be tapered to a. I ie end. For about one-thin 1 

 amidships it is well to drive "edge bolts" through the gar- 

 board and into the keel. As we go forward and aft, the gar- 



board - luld be through bolted from outside to outside aud 

 the bolts riveted; this makes a strong union between all the 

 parts. 



In narrow or deep-throated vessels, it is {almost impossible 

 to get timber to " work " for the floors, in which case iron 

 floors or hooks are made use of. This is the common prac- 

 tice in British cutters. The keelson can then be dispensed 

 with, as it takes up a great deal of room where it is desirable 

 to stow btllast ; or, if employed, a part of it may be of lead, 

 the large bolts going through from lead outside to top of 

 keelson or floor timber, as the case may be, and secured by 

 nuts and washers as before. With such construction we 

 have a boat that will stand any work and be uncapsizable. 

 At sea this is a great comfort to know. 



For a larger vessel, say a schooner of 80ft. on the water- 

 hne, a popular size of craft for foreign cruising, the follow- 

 ing will be fair proportions : 



As it will not be possible to get the keel in one length, w^e are 

 obliged to scarph shorter pieces together, keeping the scarphs 

 clear of the mast steps. Siding of keel ISin. and 

 4ft. below the rabbet. If lead is to be carried, the siding 

 should be increased to loin. Without lead, the keel will be 

 built up of three pieces, the upper two nearly alike and the 

 lower in the nature of a shoe, which may come off without 

 damage to the hull in the event of taking the ground. When 

 the pilot-boat Negus went on the rocks some time ago, the 

 keel was nearly ground off her up to the plank, and yet she 

 came off without other injury, the oakum not even 'having 

 staried enough to cause a leak. Scarphs in the different 

 thicknesses of keel must be shifted and not come underneath 

 one. another. The timber should be as hard as possible to 

 hold the many fastenings without split or wear. The scarphs 

 about 8ft. long. Where the keel rounds up forward it may 

 be necessary to add another tier to the keel, and the stem will 

 finally be secured to that by a " box-scarph," though often 

 being merely bolted through and depending on an apron in- 

 side for effective joint. When simply tailed on, a seat of 

 about 12ft. should be provided for it. The frame-stations 

 being marked off, the bolts to hold the keel together are 

 driven, say g or lin. diam. When the frames are up in place 

 there will be one bolt through the heel of each futtuck and 

 one down through keelson, floor timber, and through the 

 first piece of keel. The rabbet should run from to Din. be- 

 low the top of keel, and be deep enough to take 3m. stuff. 

 When the garboard is sprung into place, spike enouah to hold 

 it to floors and treenail the rest. Forward and aft bolt gar 

 boards through from side to side, and the buts " square- 

 bolted " through aud through, clinching on either side of 

 ceiling. A keelson is run from the apron forward aft to the 

 post, being often worked in as part of the dead wood. Floor 

 beams for cabius should be of fair sine and well secured to 

 the side by knees. Iron staunchions, screw-bolted at head 

 and foot, will serve to hold deck and keel together and prevent 

 straining where much ballast is carried. Effective tying of 

 the deck will prevent opening in the beams and save the 

 joiner- work. Lead should be put next the second tier of the 

 keel and form a. portion of the shoe. The bolts holding it 

 ought to be liin. thick, and secured as before described. The 

 lead should be in one piece and not weigh more than six tons, 

 though in England it has become customary to carry much 

 more in their best vessels. 



A keel boat to get the full benefit from her keel, should be 

 narrow and of good depth ; this form enables us to get along 

 with a small rig aud yet sail well. When inclined win, a 

 strong wind, shallow keel boats are apt to fall to leeward 

 and lose in that way ; a deep keel may be put on, but it is 

 very weak and ineffective. 



, ,», . 



To " A Yachtsman " and Others. — With a little reflec- 

 tion you might have answered your queries for 

 yourselves. Wc cannot afford cither the time or 

 space to condescend to notice scurrilous personalities. Our 

 mission is to advocate the interests of the yachting community 1 

 to spread a knowledge of naval design and cultivate a taste for 

 seamanship ; not to engage in mere personal recrimination. 

 Our columns will attest this fact as well as our ability to hold 

 our own with persons not even conversant with the principles 

 of the common lever. The BilUngsgate you refer to is uu 

 worthy our notice. It is merely a bid for free advertising, 

 aud will fail to fetch its mark. Your queries do you little 

 credit, as you ought to be able to distinguish without our aid 

 between abusive invective and sound argument. 



THE SHARPIE TO WINDWARD. 



Bosun, L. I., Feb. 14, 1*70. 

 Editor Forest and Stream : 



I notice in this week'a number of your paper a letter with head- 

 ing of " Deep Draught va. Light Draught," also the editorial ooin- 

 nrenta, in which lattor it Ib hinted that although the sharpie is a 

 very good boat fur ainooth water sailing aud, iu an far a» safety is 

 concerned, well enough in rough weather, still she cannot be de- 

 pended on for working to windward rapidly in a heavy aea. 



Now, it is juat here that I wish to put in a word. Men who have 

 apent years of their life bailing sharpies in ail aorta of weather 

 state, and ate witling to prove, that these boats are more seaworthy 

 than any, andean turn to windward when other craft, of whatever 

 typo, have either to turn tail and run or lie to. 



I very much suapect it ia tho old story of Theory va. Practice, 

 but whatever be the trouble X would anggeat that it wore well to 

 "prove tho pudding" in the nanal way, if for no better reaaon 

 than to brush fog from the eyea of juat a few yachtsmen who ap- 

 pear to lie "all at aea" in more ways than one. 



1 am at I ho present time building a sharpie, on experimental 

 lines, and if the captain of any cotter, or deep keel yacht ia anx- 

 ioiim to prove a shaky theory I will bo moat happy to give him a 

 turn to windwurd and home in any kind of weather, and the 

 rougher it be the more sanguine am I of demonstrating that fif . 

 . i than fifteen feet, in the way of draught. 



The only ruatrictioua 1 ahould wiah to name would be nothing 

 | ot sails anil but two men iu each boat. T. C. 



The proposition of " T. C." to match the sharpie against a 

 deep-keel boat in a steep sea is a fair and laudable one. We 

 trust a setica of such matches may be arranged with the 

 Petrel, of Xew York, or some equally smart keel-boat from the 

 East. If " T. O." is correct in his estimate of the sharpie's 

 abilities to windward, the sooner the public can be mad- 

 to understand them the better for all concerned. 



