428 DR DONALDSON ON THE EXPIATORY AND SUBSTITUTIONARY 
all positive religions.” He conceives the matter thus: the original man was 
one with God; his will was identical with God’s. He clung to God, as the 
child to its mother. The very thought of sacrifice in such circumstances was 
impossible. But when he sinned, at once there arose a chasm between him 
and the Divine mind. He had lost his living connection with God, his very life, 
through sin. But man still longed for unity; and in his efforts to regain that 
unity “he sought to expiate the life which he had lost through sin through 
the voluntary sacrifice of life. All sacrifices are therefore, as a consequence of 
sin, essentially expiatory sacrifices; but, according to their form, they are 
substitutionary, in that, through the presentation of the outer life, they seek to 
make up for the defective devotion of the inner will” (p. 236). Sacrifices, 
therefore, according to him, have gone through three stages of deterioration. 
“Originally,” he says, ‘“‘ the sinner voluntarily offered his own life as a sacrifice ; 
after that, instead of the guilty, another who was innocent went to the sacrificial 
death ; and finally, instead of a man, an animal was offered as a substitute” 
(p. 237). 
Il.—TuHe Mope or Proor. 
The first theory is one that requires no explanation, and if it is true, will 
admit of easy and ready proof. Did the Greeks think that their gods ate and 
drank? Did they, when trying to avert the anger of their gods, think of them 
as they would think of angry men whose wrath could be turned aside by large 
gifts and a ready obedience to their wishes? Or, was there some other notion 
besides this in their sacrifices ? 
The first theory has this also to be said in its favour, that, whether true or 
not of the origin of sacrifice, it is itself unquestionably a fact of the present day. 
Among barbarous tribes sacrifices are offerings of food and drink, of which the 
god is believed to partake, and by which he is believed to be gratified. I may 
be allowed to quote two decided instances, taken from Mr S. Barine GouLp’s © 
“Origin and Development of Religious Belief :”—‘“ Thus, among the Iroquois, 
when an enemy was tortured at the stake, the savage executioners leapt around 
him crying, ‘To thee Areskoui, great spirit, we slay this victim, that thou mayest 
eat his flesh and be moved thereby to give us henceforth luck and victory over 
our foes!’ The dead were also invoked and bidden join in drinking the blood 
of the sufferer and eating the flesh of the dead.”— Muller. 
“We bring,” says a Chinese authority, ‘fat cattle and sheep to the sacrifice. 
Prayer and oblation are made at the gate. The sacrifice is completed, and our 
ancestor appears. He takes the offering. Pious descendants have luck. The 
kettle is heated in haste. Some roast, some bake flesh, and offer to the guest, 
then to the host. The wine is poured out. The patron spirit is present. The 

