436 DR DONALDSON ON THE EXPIATORY AND SUBSTITUTIONARY 
II.—Srconp PERIOD. 
I now come to the second period, ranging from the time of Hesiod to the 
conquests of Alexander—the classical period. 
1. During the second period, as during the first, we find that sacrifices 
were offered up on almost every important occurrence, public and private. 
In very many of these cases there could be no consciousness of sin leading to 
the sacrifice. Sacrifices were offered up to secure victory, to secure success in 
any undertaking ; sacrifices were offered up as thanksgivings for the attain- 
ment of success; “ in fact,” as NAGELSBACH says, “on every occasion on which 
one could seek or recognise the favour of the gods.”* 
Nor are we left in any doubt as to how the Greeks viewed these sacrifices. 
They were viewed as gifts to the gods. This comes prominently out in the 
writings of Plato. In the “ Euthyphro,” in which the doctrine of holiness is 
the subject of discussion, Euthyphro defines holy things as those things that 
take place “if one knows how to say and to do things pleasing (xexapuopeva) 
to the gods in prayer and sacrifice.”+t Socrates is so far pleased with the 
definition, but wishes to go farther. Accordingly, after getting from Euthy- 
phro an assent to the statement that holiness is the knowledge how to sacrifice 
and pray, he puts the question to him, “Is not sacrificing giving gifts to the 
gods, and is not praying making requests to the gods?”{ Socrates introduces 
the discussion, in order to undermine the common idea that the gods could be 
influenced by gifts and offerings to abet wickedness. The same idea of sacrifice 
is given in the “ Politicus,” where it is said, “ There are also priests, who, as 
the law declares, know how to give the gods gifts from men, in the form of 
sacrifices which are acceptable to them, and to ask for a return of blessings 
from them.”§ In the “Republic” and ‘“ Laws” he attacks the popular notions 
with great vigour and earnestness. In the “Republic,” it is plain that Plato 
includes among the sacrifices that are gifts, propitiatory sacrifices; for he 
speaks of the mendicant priests claiming “a power procured from the gods, 
if there has been any act of injustice done by any one himself or his ancestors, 
of curing it (axetoo.,—that is, undoing the mischief) by sacrifices and charms, 
accompanied with pleasures and festivals (ue? jdovav Te kat Eoprav),” and he says, 
a littie further on, that these quacks persuade men “that there are releases from 
and purifications of acts of injustice, through sacrifices and pleasures of amuse- 
ment (Sua Ovoidy Kat madias Hdovdv), for living and dead.”|| He quotes the 
* « Nachhomerische Theologie,” p. 207; see also K. F. Hermann’s “ Lehrbuch der gottesdien- 
stlichen Alterthiimer der Griechen,’ which contains a very full notification of the passages in Greek 
writers relating to sacrifice. 
+ P. 14, B. t Poa. '€. § P. 290, C, D. Prof. Jowrtt’s Translation. 
|| Rep. ii. p. 364, C, E. 


