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1876.] The Origin and Development of Museuns. 85 
Paper, a very important object for collections, has been known 
since the beginning of culture in the East, but the use of it be- 
came gradually less and less, on account of heavy taxes upon it, 
from the beginning of the Christian era to the sixth century, and 
in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries the use of it was nearly 
forgotten. Cotton paper was carried by Arabs to North Africa 
in the tenth century, and two centuries later to Spain. Curi- 
ously enough the manufacture of linen paper was discovered 
through an intentional fraud. People first tried to make cheaper 
cotton paper by the introduction of linen rags, and very soon ob- 
served that the paper was greatly improved by this addition. Of 
course the manufacture with linen rags alone gave a more perfect 
paper, and was retained. This was probably first manufactured in 
Germany, as there exist old deeds in Bavaria on linen paper from 
the year 1318. Paper mills existed in 1341 in France, and later 
in Nurnberg, Holland, Basle, and Switzerland. Some mills existed 
in England, but produced only packing-paper ; till 1690 all writing 
and printing paper was imported from Holland. It is sure that 
at the end of the fifteenth century linen paper was everywhere 
used, and cheap enough to displace the costly parchment. It is 
obvious that the common use of paper was a great advantage to 
every student. Botanical collections were only possible when the 
preservation of dried plants could be afforded. Just at this time 
the name herbarium, with its present meaning, seems to have 
originated, : 
Before this time, objects of natural history accompanied only 
by chance the more valuable objects of trade. Now science 
seemed suddenly to be awakened, or rather new-born. Every 
one was in haste to study the new objects, never seen before, and 
arriving in great numbers from newly-discovered countries. It 
was a natural consequence that those of the old country should 
be compared with the new ones, and every student was surprised 
to find so much around him that he had never known before. 
Conrad Gesner, a naturalist from Switzerland, a student of 
vast erudition and clear judgment, may be considered the reno- 
vator of natural science. History begins a new volume with his 
name, and his works are for the next centuries of the same im- 
portance as those of Albertus Magnus for earlier times. Gesner 
began in a right and sensible way to study thoroughly the com- 
mon objects nearest him, and by this means was enabled to 
understand more easily those from foreign lands with different 
features, | 
