USELESS HABITS IN TWO BRITISH NEWTS. 213 



things. In an animal with a low intelligence, such as the Newt, 

 useless habits are very clearly demonstrated by the labyrinth 

 method, where, on account of the Newt's plasticity, movements 

 tend to be repeated ; useless habits are thus formed, and the first 

 solution of a labyrinth problem is a roundabout one. But there 

 is also reduction — the complement of rapid modifiability — so 

 that this animal, which has such blunt perceptions, is able by a 

 process of mechanically building up and then cutting down to 

 form a more or less perfect habit. 



The examples of useless habits which I have given were all 

 extraordinary, and were described in order to show that there 

 does exist mechanical repetition of useless movements. 



Prof. M. F. Washburn records* that in the case of some 

 Salamanders tested by her in a labyrinth, the animals never 

 learnt the maze properly, but formed many elaborately useless 

 habits. The motive employed was not satisfactory, and the 

 experiments were not therefore completed. It is, however, inte- 

 resting to note that the appearance of these elaborately useless 

 habits have been corroborated by my experiments with Newts. 

 Useless habits of a lesser degree have been also reported in other 

 animals. 



What conclusion is to be drawn from a consideration of the 

 Newt's tendency to repeat movements is difficult to see. The 

 observations made on the Newt, especially when in the spiral 

 labyrinth, showed that movements undoubtedly tended to be 

 repeated, irrespective of consequences. The animal went con- 

 tinuously right or continuously left of the pillar, though both 

 were equally correct. It might be supposed, therefore, that the 

 repetition of these turns is largely mechanical, and only very 

 indirectly dependent upon conscious choice. If the Newt simply 

 chose the directions leading to pleasure, it should on the average 

 have gone alternately right and left of the pillar of the spiral. 

 In other labyrinths many useless habits were formed which led 

 only extremely indirectly to pleasure. It is possible that this 

 tendency under certain conditions to repeat movements indis- 

 criminately is mechanical. Such a mechanical tendency could 

 be acquired if useful. Its usefulness to the animals when in 

 a state of nature is quite inconceivable, and if mechanical, 

 * ' The Animal Mind,' p. 231. 



