78 CEREMONIAL INSTITUTIONS. 



propitiation of a dead chief, arc, in various other cases, 

 knocked out by a priest as a quasi-religious ceremony. 

 Scalps are taken from killed enemies, and sometimes their 

 hair is used to decorate a victor s dress; and then come 

 various sequences. Here the enslaved have their heads 

 cropped; here scalp-locks are worn subject to a chief s 

 ownership, and occasionally demanded in sign of submis 

 sion; while, elsewhere, men sacrifice their beards to their 

 rulers: unshorn hair being thus rendered a mark of 

 rank. Among numerous peoples, hair is sacrificed to 

 propitiate the ghosts of relatives; whole tribes cut it off on 

 the deaths of their chiefs or kings; and it is yielded up to 

 express subjection to deities. Occasionally it is offered to 

 a living superior in token of respect; and this complimen 

 tary offering is extended to others. Similarly with genital 

 mutilations: there is a like taking of certain parts 

 from slain enemies and from living prisoners; and there is 

 a presentation of them to kings and to gods. Self -bleed ing, 

 initiated partly, perhaps, by cannibalism, but more exten 

 sively by the mutual giving of blood in pledge of loyalty, 

 enters into several ceremonies expressing subordination: 

 \ve find it occurring in propitiation of ghosts and of gods, 

 and occasionally as a compliment to living persons. Xatu- 

 rally it is the same with the resulting marks. Originally 

 indefinite in form and place but rendered definite by 

 custom, and at length often decorative, these healed 

 wounds, at first entailed only on relatives of deceased per 

 sons, then on all of the followers of a man much feared while 

 alive, so become marks expressive of subjection to a dead 

 ruler, and eventually to a god: growing thus into tribal 

 and national marks. 



If, as we have seen, trophy-taking as a sequence of con 

 quest enters as a factor into those governmental restraints 

 which conquest initiates, it is to be inferred that the mutila 

 tions originated by trophy-taking will do the like. The 

 eA r idence justifies this inference. Beginning as marks of 



