246 POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS. 



bution are now carried on, that only in modern days lias 

 there come a recognition of the fact that it has all along been 

 arising. 



On the other hand, cooperation for a purpose immediately 

 concerning the whole society, is a conscious cooperation ; and 

 is carried on by an organization of another kind, formed in a 

 different way. When the primitive group has to defend 

 itself against other groups, its members act together under 

 further stimuli than those constituted by purely personal 

 desires. Even at the outset, before any control by a chief 

 exists, there is the control exercised by the group over its 

 members ; each of whom is obliged, by public opinion, to join 

 in the general defence. Very soon the warrior of recognized 

 superiority begins to exercise over each, during war, an in 

 fluence additional to that exercised by the group ; and when 

 his authority becomes established, it greatly furthers com 

 bined action. From the beginning, therefore, this kind of 

 social cooperation is a conscious cooperation, and a coopera 

 tion which is not wholly a matter of , choice is often at 

 variance with private wishes. As the organization initiated 

 by it develops, we see that, in the first place, the fighting 

 division of the society displays in the highest degree these 

 same traits : the grades and divisions constituting an army, 

 cooperate more and more under the regulation, consciously 

 established, of agencies which override individual volitions 

 or, to speak strictly, control individuals by motives which 

 prevent them from acting as they would spontaneously act. 

 In the second place, w r e see that throughout the society as a 

 whole there spreads a kindred form of organization kindred 

 in so far that, for the purpose of maintaining the militant 

 body and the government which directs it, there are esta 

 blished over citizens, agencies which force them to labour 

 more or less largely for public ends instead of private ends. 

 And, simultaneously, there develops a further organization, 

 still akin in its fundamental principle, which restrains indi 

 vidual actions in such wise that social safety shall not be 



