POLITICAL FORMS AND FORCES. 315 



men of the district, with a crowd of retainers . . . both for 

 the discussion of public affairs and the administration of jus 

 tice . . . Within the circle [formed for administering justice] 

 sat the judges, the people standing on the outside.&quot; In the ac 

 count given by Mr. Freeman of the yearly meetings in the Swiss 

 cantons of Uri and Appenzell, we may trace this primitive 

 political form as still existing ; for though the presence of the 

 people at large is the fact principally pointed out, yet there is 

 named, in the case of Uri, the body of magistrates or chosen 

 chiefs who form the second element, as well as the head magis 

 trate who is the first element. And that in ancient England 

 there was a kindred constitution of the Witenagemot, is in 

 directly proved; as witness the following passage from 

 Freeman s G-rowtli of the English Constitution : 



* No ancient record gives us any clear or formal account of the constitu 

 tion of that body. It is commonly spoken of in a vague way as a 

 gathering of the wise, the noble, the great men. But, alongside pas 

 sages like these, we find other passages which speak of it in a w r ay 

 which implies a far more popular constitution. King Eadward is said 

 to be chosen King by all folk. Earl Godwine makes his speech 

 before the king and all the people of the land. &quot; 



And the implication, as Mr. Freeman points out, is that the 

 share taken by the people in the proceedings was that of 

 expressing by shouts their approval or disapproval. 



This form of ruling agency is thus shown to be the funda 

 mental form, by its presence at the outset of social life and 

 by its continuance under various conditions. Not among 

 peoples of superior types only, such as Aryans and some 

 Semites, do we find it, but also among sundry Malayo-Poly- 

 nesians, among the red men of North America, the Dravidian 

 tribes of the Indian hills, the aborigines of Australia. In 

 fact, as already implied, governmental organization could not 

 possibly begin in any other way. On the one hand, no con 

 trolling force at first exists save that of the aggregate will as 

 manifested in the assembled horde. On the other hand, lead 

 ing parts in determining this aggregate will are inevitably 

 taken by the few whose superiority is recognized. And of 



