428 POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS. 



iu which these stood to one another: competing with them 

 for adherents, and often fortifying themselves. Sometimes, 

 too, as in France in. the 13th century, towns became suze 

 rains, while communes had the right of war in numerous 

 cases ; and in England in early days the maritime towns 

 carried on wars with one another. 



Again there is the fact that these cities and boroughs, 

 which by royal charter or otherwise had acquired powers of 

 administering their own affairs, habitually formed within 

 themselves combinations for protective purposes. In England, 

 in Spain, in France, in Germany (sometimes with assent of 

 the king, sometimes notwithstanding his reluctance as in 

 England, sometimes in defiance of him, as in ancient Holland) 

 there rose up gilds, which, having their roots in the natural 

 unions among related persons, presently gave origin to frith- 

 gilds and merchant-gilds ; and these, defensive in their rela 

 tions to one another, formed the bases of that municipal 

 organization which carried on the general defence against 

 aggressing nobles. 



Once more, in coimtrii where the antagonisms between 

 these industrial communities and the surrounding militant 

 communities were violent and chronic, the industrial com 

 munities combined to defend themselves. In Spain the 

 &quot; poblaciones,&quot; which when they flourished and grew into 

 large places were invaded and robbed by adjacent feudal 

 lords, formed leagues for mutual protection ; and at a lateu 

 date there arose, under like needs, more extensive confedera 

 tions of cities and towns, which, under severe penalties foi 

 non-fulfilment of the obligations, bound themselves to aid 

 one another in resisting aggressions, whether by king or 

 nobles. In Germany, too, we have the perpetual alliance 

 entered into by sixty towns on the Eliine in 1255, when, 

 during the troubles that followed the deposition of the 

 Emperor Frederic II., the tyranny of the nobles had become 

 insupportable. And we have the kindred unions formed 

 under like incentives in Holland and in France. So that, 



