viii INTRODUCTION. 



islands ; though in certain districts, especially of Lanai and Oahu, the primeval woods 

 have been completely destroyed by the agency of animals or man. Goats are the chief 

 offenders in Lanai, deer (introduced of course) in Molokai, and cattle in Hawaii, while 

 in the last-named the ground is being extensively cleared to make room for coffee- 

 plantations. At the present day there is no forest on Niihau or Kahoolawe, nor are 

 there any resident land-birds on either; but that the former was at one time covered 

 with trees, or at least bush, is indubitable, since the large land-mollusks of the genus 

 Carelia, which are found there in a sub-fossil condition, can only exist in damp 

 woodlands. 



Besides the lowland zones, well-defined upper and lower forest-zones 1 may be 

 distinguished, which are characterized by the presence or comparative abundance of 

 special kinds of trees : the former, which includes all the heights from 3000 feet 

 upwards, being the chief natural habitat of the Koa (Acacia koa), the Mamane (Sophora 

 chrysophylla), the Sandal-wood (Santalum album), the Naio or Bastard Sandal-wood 

 (Myoporum santalinum), and the Lobeliacea? generally ; the lower, which extends from 

 about 1100 to 3000 feet, furnishing Pandanus odoratissimus, the Kukui (Aleurites 

 triloba), the parasitic Ieie (Freycinetia arborea), and above all the Ohia (Metrosideros 

 po/ymorpha), though the two last-named are also met with on the higher slopes in a 

 dwarfish form. The summit of Kauai consists of an extensive plateau, boggy and 

 thickly wooded ; a like state of things occurs on the mountains of western Maui and 

 on the Kohala range in northern Hawaii ; while Molokai and Lanai shew signs of 

 having formerly been similar in this respect, though in these two cases the ground has 

 now become comparatively dry. Towards the coast the trees ordinarily diminish in 

 size, while nearer to the actual beach the prickly pear now covers considerable areas 

 in several districts. The heights of the zones, of course, vary somewhat in different 

 places. 



As will be seen in the description of the various species of birds, many of them are 

 more or less restricted to the forests at particular altitudes ; but no safe deductions 



1 A more precise account of the zones may be found in the 'Mora of Hawaii' of Hillebrand. That 

 author distinguishes : — 



1. A Lowland Zone, exhibiting Pandanus, Gossypium, and other plants in abundance. 



2. A Lower Forest Zone, extending up to 1000 or 2000 feet. This is of a tropical nature, with rather open 



woods. Aleurites is the characteristic tree, and Zingiber zerumbet covers the ground. Pandanus 

 odoratissimus reaches it, but goes no higher ; Freycinetia occurs here and upwards. 



3. A Middle Forest Zone, attaining a height of 5000 or 6000 feet, and possessing many trees and shrubs 



common to the regions above and below it. It lies within the region of clouds, and is especially 

 luxuriant in vegetation both as regards trees and jungle. The most representative forms are Dodoncea 

 viscosa (the Alii), Pelea sp. (the Alani), Cheirodendron gaudichaudii (the Olapa), Acacia Jcoa, and 

 Metrosideros poly rnorplia. The arborescent Lobeliacece are there very fine, but solitary. 



4. An Upper Forest Zone, extending up to 8000 or 9000 feet, with moderately heavy soil, covered with 



liverworts, mosses, and sedges. It is characterized by stunted trees of Sophora, Myoporum, and so forth, 

 with shrubby Compositce and the Ohelo ( Yaccinium rcticidatum). 



5. Above the forests are found creeping forms of Metrosideros, CyatJiodes, and the like. 



