in areas following a period of oxygen depletion (Leppakoski 1969: 

 Steimle and Radosh 1979), in sludge dumps (Halcrow et al. 1973; 

 Pearce. Caracciolo, Halsey, and Rogers 1977b; Pearce, Rogers, 

 Caracciolo, and Halsey 1977), and in sediments contaminated by 

 oil (Reish 1965; Sanders et al. 1972). Henriksson (1969) demon- 

 strated a linear correlation between counts of bacteria indicative of 

 pollution and the abundance of C. capitata in the Oresund, Den- 

 mark. 



Capirella capitata is found in numbers as high as 60.000/m- at 

 depths up to 637 m off California in areas where the normally 

 diverse deep-sea fauna is absent or uncommon (Hartman 1961). 

 Similarly, it has been noted by several investigators (Leppakoski 

 1969: Barnard 1970: Sanders et al. 1972) working in other areas, 

 that for C. capitata to achieve large population sizes, other species 

 must be absent or present in low numbers; this suggests that C. cap- 

 itata is a poor competitor. Wolff (1973) showed that C. capitata was 

 not very responsive to sediment differences and Reish (1971) even 

 found them settling on blocks of wood in Los Angeles Harbor. War- 

 ren's (1977) study of environmental variables likely to affect the 

 distribution of C. capitata suggested that a high organic content is 

 most important, with particle size of sediments indirectly influenc- 

 ing the distribution of the species through its relationship with 

 organic content, C. capitata being most common in fine sands. 

 This appears to be true in the New York Bight apex where C. capi- 

 tata was highly concentrated in high organic fine sand (up to 5,000/ 

 m : ) near the centerof the sewage sludge disposal site. It occurred in 

 other areas of the apex, but at much lower concentrations (10-40/ 

 m : ). Since fine sandy sediments with similar depth regimes and 

 lower organic contents are common in the apex, it appears that the 

 very high organic content and/or the lack of competitors in the 

 sludge disposal area was the prerequisite for the dense settlement of 

 the species (Fig. 35; Table 1). 



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Figure 35.— Distribution and abundance of Copitella capitata in the New York 

 Bight apex. 



FEEDING ECOLOGY: Capitellids use their eversible proboscis 

 to burrow, and they are generally thought to be nonselective deposit 

 feeders. Since C. capitata does not possess the enzymes to digest 

 plant material, Warren (1977) concluded that microorganisms form 

 the bulk of its food. Stephens (1975) reported minimal bacterial 

 consumption in C. capitata and believes nutrition is achieved by 

 direct absorption of microorganism-associated dissolved amino 

 acids across the body wall, however, the net energy gain is not 

 clear. Tenore and Hanson (1980), in an experiment using different 

 types of radioactively labelled detritus, found that the faster the 

 decomposition of the detritus, the greater the amount utilized in the 

 growth of C. capitata. 



REPRODUCTION AND GROWTH: In West Greenland, small 

 oocytes of C. capitata were formed during most of the year but 

 these attained spawning size only in the spring (March-April 1959; 

 April 1960) (Curtis 1977). In England, estimates of total number of 

 oocytes produced ranged from 10,000 in young females to 14,400 

 in older worms, most eggs released in a single spawning (Warren 

 1976). However, C. capitata is able to breed throughout the year as 

 it has been observed to do in Buzzards Bay. Mass. , (Driscoll 1972) 

 and at Warren Point. England (Warren 1976). When food is always 

 available, their asynchronous mode of reproduction allows them to 

 exploit their resources to the fullest without placing too heavy a 

 demand on food supply at any one time. Muus (1967) found egg 

 number in Danish specimens to average 130, with adults producing 

 one to several broods. 



Warren C1976) found the yolky egg to require 10-14 d develop- 

 ment in the maternal tube and a further 7 d before metamorphosis as 



alecithotrophic. planktonic larva. According to Eisig (1914). these 

 larvae are photopositive. Rasmussen (1956. 1973) found two sepa- 

 rate modes of development in the Isefjord. Denmark, where larvae 

 developed nonpelagically during winter within adult tubes, but in 

 summer, eggs were protected within the brood for only 10-14 d 

 before a free-swimming stage emerged. Reish (1965) described a 

 single specimen from the Bering Straits which was incubating eggs 

 within the maternal tube during July. In West Greenland, a number 

 of specimens were found brooding eggs and early unsegmented lar- 

 vae within their tubes (Curtis 1977). Rasmussen (1956), Muus 

 ( 1967), and Grassle and Grassle (1974) all agreed that larval devel- 

 opment may be completely benthic. By this alternative mode of 

 reproduction. C. capitata can rapidly exploit local concentrations 

 of organic matter. 



Newly metamorphosed larvae have been observed in the Woods 

 Hole. Mass., plankton in June (Simon and Brander 1967). in spring 

 in the Isefjord (Rasmussen 1973), and in late summer and early fall 

 in the Elbe Estuary, Germany (Giere 1968). In Wild Harbor. Mass., 

 settlement of planktonic larvae has been observed in late winter and 

 summer with greatest settlement from May to October. Larvae have 

 been collected from the plankton essentially year-round in the 

 Oslofjord. Norway (Schram 1968). at Banyuls sur Mer (Bhaud 

 1967). and in the Gulf of Marseilles. France (Casanova 1953). It is 

 possible that planktonic larvae are produced only in dense popula- 

 tions or when food is scarce. 



Adult size can vary from about 1 mm to a maximum of 100 mm; 

 Curtis (1977) reported maturity to be reached at a length of about 

 10 mm in West Greenland. Grassle and Grassle (1974) reported that 



25 



