The consensus of skilled skippers is that surface-midwater trawls 

 as presently used are entirely satisfactory. The reason for their con- 

 fidence is that the catching rate is, at present at least, enormously 

 higher than the processing-preservation rate. Catching technology 

 far outruns utilization technology. 



Natural Restrictions 



In any consideration of Antarctic fishing, it should be realized 

 that nature has imposed restrictions on successful fishing on a 

 year-round basis. The first is ice. During the Antarctic "winter" 

 (May to November) about 22 million km 2 (60% of the total 

 oceanic area) is covered by ice. Fishing during the winter is very dif- 

 ficult although the Soviets and the Poles have accomplished it. In 

 the milder "summer" period (December to April), the ice cover is 

 reduced to 4 million km : or 11% of the oceanic area. This 150-d 

 period is the longest that is feasible for fishing of any kind, and 

 even then the weather in early spring and late autumn is inclement. 



A second less important hindrance is the constant high wind. 

 The chief contrast to the Arctic Ocean, latitude for latitude, is the 

 extremely high wind velocity. In this respect, it has been postulated 

 that it may not be "beyond the bounds of possibility to conceive of 

 a floating plant, anchored in deep water, powered by the ever- 

 blowing westerly winds, uninhabited and automatic, and visited at 

 intervals of months for the removal of the crustacean sludge ex- 

 tracted by mechanical separation. Such development would seem 

 more promising than direct fishery in antarctic waters" (Bertram 

 and Blyth 1956). 



Fishermen and scientists have chosen to ignore the above sug- 

 gestion of automated equipment powered by the ever-blowing 

 wind. They have, instead, relied on adaptations of conventional 

 fishery techniques. One advantage of free fishing is being able to 

 actively seek planktonic patches of krill rather than passively 

 waiting for krill to be drifted to the automated plant. A second ad- 

 vantage is the choice of product forms that can be made with 

 human supervision. 



Financial Assistance 



facilities in this desolate area of the world would have to be careful- 

 ly weighed against the use of factory ships. 



Norway and Taiwan interests are so deeply committed to con- 

 ventional fishery operations that can be performed at a profit that 

 it is considered unlikely that they will be serious contenders in this 

 fishery. Japanese efforts to the present have been carried out joint- 

 ly between private industry and the Japan Marine Resource 

 Research Center. A refrigerated transport owned jointly by several 

 companies accompanied by large trawlers to act as krill catchers 

 was subsidized by the Fisheries Agency of Japan. If Japanese food 

 technologists have not improved upon the final product forms of 

 krill by the mid-1980's, it is likely that Japanese government sub- 

 sidies will either cease or be greatly reduced. The aim will be to shift 

 financial responsibility upon industry. 



The U.S.S.R. has spent more years and effort than any other 

 nation in krill research and utilization. The determination and per- 

 sistence of Soviet scientists may soon result in products that will be 

 acceptable in world markets. Poland's interest, while spanning on- 

 ly about 6 yr, is intense and the Poles have become competent. In 

 the hope of resolving a quality control problem, the Northeast 

 Fisheries Center, Gloucester Laboratory, sent an observer to the 

 Antarctic aboard the Polish Research Vessel Professor Siedlecki 

 during its 1978-79 expedition. 



The United States has not shown an interest in krill harvesting or 

 utilization in the recent past nor is it likely to in the near future. 

 There are several reasons for its abstention from this type of 

 fishery. The first is that we do not have any pressing need for this 

 source of protein and fat since we are the world's largest exporter 

 of food. The second is that as yet no product made from krill has 

 been acceptable to western tastes and no demand exists. A third is 

 that the private sector has no incentive to invest in the krill fishery 

 because of prohibitive costs of maintaining a fleet in such a remote 

 area. A fourth reason is that Americans will not willingly accept 

 employment which requires their being away from home for such 

 extended periods. Government subsidy such as is done by Russia 

 and Poland would not work with Americans unless there were 

 enormous benefits comparable with those which resulted from the 

 construction of the Alaskan oil pipeline. 



It is highly significant that all of the nations that have sent ex- 

 ploratory krill operations in the last decade have been official 

 representatives of their respective governments — either directly as 

 government employees or as contractors to a government agency. 

 Most prominent have been the U.S.S.R., Japan, Poland, and the 

 Federal Republic of Germany. To a lesser extent, Chile, the United 

 Kingdom, the German Democratic Republic, Norway, and 

 Taiwan have experimented with krill. 



The cost to outfit, crew, and operate a large ship thousands of 

 miles away from its home port is so great that private industry can- 

 not afford it. At present, the costs are so staggering compared with 

 the returns that only completely government-subsidized krill 

 explorations can be undertaken. The United Kingdom has already 

 gone on record stating that the disadvantages of a krill operation 

 exceed the advantages (Anonymous 1976). Further, it has stated 

 that it would prefer to investigate the possibility of exploiting blue 

 whiting stocks close to its shores although in very deep water. 



The position of West Germany is somewhat complicated by the 

 fact that West German processors have expressed criticism of the 

 explorations. They definitely prefer "closer-to-home research with 

 more immediate prospects of tangible results" (Anonymous 1977). 

 Chile and Argentina are in the advantageous position of being 

 able, theoretically at least, to establish land-based operations at 

 their southern extremity. The economics and feasibility of building 



PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY 



Composition 



As with any fishery resource, the protein, fat, mineral, and 

 vitamin content are related to physiological condition, age, diet, 

 and sex of the particular animal. Grantham (1977) has summarized 

 the results of 20 papers which report values for the proximate com- 

 position of whole krill (Table 1). 



Table 1. — Proximate composition of whole Euphausia superba: Summary of literature 



values. 







% Drv weieht 







"Jo Wet weight 







Moisture 



Crude' 



Crude 





Crude' 



Crude 





% 



protein 



fat 



Ash 



protein 



fat 



Average 



80.1 



65.1 



14.2 



13.9 



13.0 



2.8 



Mean maximum 



83.1 



77.5 



26.0 



16.7 



15.4 



5.1 



Mean minimum 



77.9 



59.7 



6.7 



11.7 



11.9 



1_3 



1 Total nitrogen x 6.25, includes nonprotein material. (Source: Grantham 1977.) 



