157 



Berg, Gerald. 1967. 



Transmission of Viruses by the Water Route. Interscience Publishers Div. , 

 John Wiley & Sons, New York, xviii+484 p. 



From introduction and discussion to section entitled Survival of Viruses in 

 Water and Waste Water: 369-470. - Viruses can be found miles from sewage 

 outfalls. Shellfishes concentrate viruses, especially during periods of 

 high activity. Thousands of plaque-forming units of virus can be con- 

 centrated in each shellfish experimentally, but few infective units of virus 

 have been detected in oysters from beds close to sewage outfalls. Apparently 

 viruses of human origin neither infect, nor adsorb strongly to, shellfish 

 tissue, and are easily detected there. Infectious hepatitis is sometimes 

 associated with consumption of raw shellfishes. Unless the agent responsible 

 for this disease is concentrated by shellfishes to a greater extent than 

 other viruses studied, the infective dose for man of the infectious hepatitis 

 agent would appear to be small. Shellfishes apparently can be freed of 

 viruses by depuration. Disappearance of virus particles from clams is a 

 mechanical rinsing effect, not inactivation. This is suggested by per- 

 sistence of virus in clams in winter and disappearance as water temp rises. 

 It is also compatible with the observation that viruses cannot be detected 

 in cells of clams. Reliable data are not available on fate of viruses in 

 water. Their numbers are reduced over a period of time, but mechanism of 

 removal is obscure. Ultraviolet radiation near the water surface, adsorption 

 and sedimentation, and bacterial antagonism have been considered. Shellfish- 

 associated infectious hepatitis was first recognized in 1955 in Sweden from 

 oysters stored wet, according to James W. Mosley. First recognized outbreaks 

 in the United States were from consumption of raw clams from New Jersey and 

 raw oysters in the South. Later, a small epidemic was traced to privately 

 harvested clams from Connecticut. In 1964 raw clams caused 2 epidemics, one 

 in New Jersey and the greater Philadelphia area, one in Connecticut. Other 

 cases of infectious hepatitis have been associated with consumption of raw 

 shellfishes. Clams seem to be much more of a problem than oysters. Alfred 

 Perlmutter suggested that the difference between oyster and hard clam might 

 be associated with the custom of not eating oysters in the "R" months. There 

 is no evidence that shellfish tissue supports multiplication of human viruses. 

 - J.L.M. 



158 



Berry, William B. N.,and Richard M. Barker. 1975. 



Growth increments in fossil and modern bivalves. In Growth Rhythms and the 

 History of the Earth's Rotation. G. D. Rosenberg and S. K. Runcorn (edsj . 

 John Wiley & Sons, London, p. 9-25. 



Species in the family Veneridae have the most conspicuous clusters of fine 

 growth increments that suggest fortnightly tidal phenomena. These include 

 Venus and Meroenaria. Other references to Meraenaria meroenaria are by 

 citation of papers abstracted elsewhere in this bibliography. - J.L.M. 



159 



Bevelander, Gerrit. 1952. 



Calcification in molluscs. III. Intake and deposition of Ca 45 and P 32 in 

 relation to shell formation. Biol. Bull. 102(1): 9-15. 



Several marine and freshwater mollusks, including Venus (presumably Venus 

 meroenaria) were used in these experiments. The results and conclusions 

 obviously apply generally to all. Elaboration of mollusk shell consists 

 of formation of a protein membrane, the periostracum, and concomitant or 

 subsequent mineralization of this membrane. It is highly probable that 

 this protein complex may be involved actively in formation or growth of 

 mineral crystals. Marine and freshwater mollusks take up labeled Ca and 

 P from water. Labeled Ca is concentrated on the periphery of the mantle 

 and also is incorporated into crystals of CaC03 in the newly formed shell. 

 Labeled P0 4 was localized on the inner margin of the mantle in the region 

 of the mucus glands. It was also incorporated in the periostracum sur- 

 rounding the crystals. Phosphatase and phosphate present in the mantle 



46 



