285 



Carriker, M. R., et al. 1954. 



Prel. report of biological studies on the hard clam V . meraenaria and the 

 oyster C. virginica in salt ponds on Gardiner's Island, L.I., directed 

 toward the utilization of these ponds in the culture of these shellfish, 

 August 1952 to April 1954 (with sp. section on oyster drills) . Research 

 sponsored by J. and J. W. Elsworth Co. and M. C. Gale, unpublished. 



286 



Carson, Rachel L. 19 43. 



Food from the sea: Fish and shellfish of New England. U.S. Dept. Interior, 

 Fish Wildl. Serv. , Conserv. Bull. 33, 74 p. 



In New England only Mya arenaria , soft clam, is a "true" clam. Venus 

 (Meraenaria) meraenaria, hard clam, is called by the old Indian name "quahaug". 

 Hard clam accounts for about 25% of New England clam production. The species 

 is much more abundant south of Cape Cod. Shallow water below the low tide 

 mark, to considerably deeper water, is predominantly the home of hard clams 

 in New England. Farther south Venus lives only in shallow water. It has 

 short siphons and usually buries only deep enough to cover the shell. Hard 

 clams are harvested by long-handled rakes, tongs, or dredges. Early life 

 history of hard clam is similar to that of soft clam, which is described in 

 some detail. Essential features are larval life, during which survival is 

 affected by temp changes. At metamorphosis, the young clam loses its 

 swimming organ and sinks to the bottom, developing a muscular foot, a siphon, 

 and gills. The young clam anchors itself to a firm surface by a single 

 byssus thread, but at slack water may cast off this attachment and creep 

 about. This alternate attachment and movement over the bottom may last for 

 some time. During this period young are vulnerable to small predators. 

 Before the shell is 1/4 inch long the young clam begins to dig into the 

 bottom. This process also alternates with surface crawling. Byssus threads 

 may be reformed until the clam is at least 1/2 inch long to anchor the young 

 clam in its burrow temporarily. After final descent, threads are no longer 

 produced, and the clam does not leave its burrow voluntarily. - J.L.M. 



287 



Carson, Rachel L. 1945. 



Fish and shellfish of the Middle Atlantic coast. Conserv. Bull. 38, U.S. 

 Dept. Interior, 32 p. 



The hard clam or quahog is the most abundant clam on the Middle Atlantic 

 coast. New York and New Jersey yield 2 to 3 million pounds each, Virginia 

 slightly less productive, and small quantities taken in Delaware, Maryland, 

 and North Carolina. Most is sold fresh, the rest canned. Hard clams live 

 in coastal waters from almost high tide to more than 50 feet deep. Deeper 

 clams are taken by dredging or with tongs (New York fishing is entirely by 

 tongs), while clams near the tidal zone are dug with rakes or by hand. Hard 

 clams are well adapted to cultivation and grow within a wide depth range and 

 the fishery could be greatly developed by extensive farming. In practice 

 cultivation has been neglected and pollution has been tolerated, and only a 

 fraction of the potential value of the clam resource is realized. - J.L.M. 



288 



Carter, Melvin W. 1961. 



Biological uptake of radioactive nuclides by clams. Dissert. Abstr. 21(8) 

 Pt. 3: 2665. 



Ruthenium was taken in by Venus meraenaria in relatively low levels but 

 subsequently released to the environment. Radioactivity levels in tissues 

 decreased even when ruthenium was maintained in the water. An aversion 

 reaction was suspected. Cerium and promethium accumulated rapidly in soft 

 tissues and shell cavity fluid, more slowly in shell. In fresh, undosed 

 seawater soft tissues retained cerium or promethium in amounts greater 

 than 63% for over 14 days. Accumulation was attributed to a substitution 

 mechanism. Accumulation of cobalt 60 by soft tissues was suggestive of 



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