inlets cut through the outer banks by the storm, was the cause. Hard clams 

 grow slowly. In New England they reach less than a quarter inch long by 

 winter of the year of birth. It takes about 4 1/2 years to reach 3 inches 

 long. Investigators disagree on the best environment for growth, one 

 claiming that clams grow most rapidly in the intertidal zone, another saying 

 that growth is better below low tide, for the feeding period can be longer. 

 Maximum rate of growth is at 14 mm long. Crowding causes competition for 

 food and space, and under such conditions clams may be forced out of the 

 bottom and exposed to enemies. In colder waters shell growth ceases in 

 winter. Shell growth commences when water temperature reaches about 49°F 

 (9°C) and ceases when temperature drops to 41-45°F (5-7°C) . Young are more 

 vulnerable to predation than adults. Principal enemies of young are sea 

 stars, crabs, snails, and fishes; adults are attacked by sea stars, moon 

 snails, and conch. Clam culture has not been well developed. Expected yield 

 from a planting of 20 seed clams per square foot would be about 1,200 bu of 

 2 1/2 -inch clams per acre. The clam industry and its history in North 

 Carolina is described briefly. Four grades are recognized: littleneck, 

 cherrystone, large, and chowder. Harvesting is almost entirely by rakes 

 and treading. Clam producing areas are waters within the influence of the 

 outer banks inlets. Production varied widely, from a maximum of about 1.3 

 million pounds of meats in 1941 (170,000 US bu) to a low of 78,000 pounds 

 in 1887. About the turn of the century clams were bought at 40C per bu and 

 processed at Ocracoke as clam juice, chowder, and whole clams. Many cans 

 were labelled quahaugs from Islip, N.Y. Clamming in N.C., up to 1948 at 

 least, was an alternative occupation when other fishing activities were slow. 

 Weather and the hard labor involved were constraints. Hard clam has certain 

 advantages over oyster in the market. The tradition of the R months does 

 not apply, and quality of meats does not vary as widely seasonally as with 

 oyster. Most clams have been marketed through brokers, or shipped to 

 Baltimore. Prices in New York in March 1949 were: littleneck $6.50-7.50, 

 cherrystone $5.00-5.50, large $4.50, chowder $2.50-3.00 per New York basket. 

 More scientific study is needed on which to base recommendations for clam 

 farming and management of the industry. - J.L.M. 



338 



Chestnut, A. F. 1952. 



Growth rates and movements of hard clams, Venus mercenaria. Proc . Gulf 

 Carib. Fish. Inst., 4th Ann. Sess.: 49-59. 



Hard clams (2.7-10.1 cm in length) were marked and planted in the lower 

 intertidal of the north and south shores of Bogue Sound, North Carolina. 

 Clams planted in the mud bottom of the south shore did not grow signifi- 

 cantly. Clams planted in the hard sand of the north shore grew on the 

 average from 13 to 219 mm. Growth occurred in every month of the year, 

 was greatest in April and May, declined through the summer, increased in 

 October, and then declined with the lower winter temps. Planted clams 

 migrated in all directions, but predominantly toward the shoreline. Dis- 

 tance traveled ranged from 3 to 83 inches in a year. - D.L. 



339 



Chestnut, A. F. 1953. 



Studies of the North Carolina clam industry. Natl. Shellf. Assn., Convention 

 Addresses 1951: 85-88. 



Records of clam production in N.C. go back to 1880. The catch was unusually 

 high as early as 1902. A plant was established at Ocracoke in 1898 by J. H. 

 Doxsee from Islip, N.Y. He packed clam chowder, whole clams, and clam juice. 

 The product was labeled as quahaugs from Islip, N.Y. The plant later moved 

 to Sealevel, N.C. and finally to Marco, Fla. Production fluctuated con- 

 siderably from 1880 to 1950, but never reached the record high of the turn 

 of the century. At the time of writing the industry was concentrated in 

 Core Sound. Most of the catch was Venus mercenari-a , and the variety V. 

 mercenavia notata. Some V. campeehiensis also are found in the catch. 

 Gears are rakes, tongs, and dredges. The dredging method is described in 

 detail. Weather often limits operations. Most clams in the dredge catch 

 are chowder size. From June 1949 to Jan 1951 the price increased from 10 

 to 2<f per lb. Clammers did not grade clams by size. Dealers sorted into 



95 



