tint. Both valves of the clam had a healed scar from umbo to edge. At the 

 edges of the shell this produced a deep V-shaped notch. Formation of the 

 pearl probably was induced at the time the shell was broken, by introduction 

 of a sand grain or piece of shell. - J.L.M. 

 1109 



Loosanoff, V. L. 1942. 



Possibilities of developing hard-clam fishery in Connecticut waters. In 

 Bienn. Rept. Shell-fish Commissioners, State of Conn., 1941-1942: 13-15. 



At the time of writing the yield of Venus meraenaria annually in Conn, was 

 only 178,000 lbs of meats valued at $22,426, but this could be increased by 

 cultivation. It was estimated that a hard clam farm could yield as much as 

 600 bu of 2 1/2-inch clams per acre per year. Most hard clams spawn at one 

 year old. Spawning begins when water temp reaches about 73°F r in late July 

 or August. Each female releases millions of eggs 1/325 inch in diam. 

 Setting occurs in 10 to 14 days, depending on water temp. Young clams burrow 

 into the bottom at about 1/8 to 1/4 inch long. After that they are 

 relatively stationary. Clams grow best in warmer waters. Most become 

 inactive in fall, when water temp drops to about 42°F. Therefore, the animal 

 grows only from May to mid-November, fastest from mid-July through September. 

 Average length at the end of the first growing period in New England waters 

 usually is less than 1/4 inch. In succeeding years average length is about 

 1.1, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, and 3.2' inches at age 1 1/2 to 5 1/2 yrs. Maximum length 

 is about 5 1/2 inches and maximum age 20 to 25 yrs. Principal enemies are 

 cockles and conch. Sea stars are not serious predators of buried clams. 

 Hard clams live from almost high-tide level to more than 50 ft deep. Shallow 

 flats below low water mark were not used for oyster cultivation and could be 

 utilized for clam farming. Fine sand and mud in the ratio 2 parts sand: 1 

 part mud is most desirable. Water should be free of pollution. The area 

 should be sheltered from wind and rough water, and water should be at least 

 3 ft deep at low tide. If clam setting occurs nearby, problems of trans- 

 porting young clams will be absent. Various methods of harvesting seed clams 

 are suggested. Digging of flats just prior to setting often helps in getting 

 better sets. Preparation of ground for planting requires removal of thick 

 grass, stones and other debris which would interfere with harvesting or with 

 predator control. It is best to plant in relatively warm weather, when clams 

 are active and will burrow soon after planting. If water circulation is good, 

 as many as 25 seed clams/ft^ of bottom can be planted. Some clearing of 

 seaweeds and predators may be necessary. - J.L.M. 



1110 



Loosanoff, Victor L. 1944. 



Soft and hard clams of the Atlantic coast of the United States. U.S. Fish 

 Wildl. Serv., Fish. Leaflet 13, 11 p. 



Essentially repeats information contained in other papers by the author and 

 others. Included are distribution and habitat, reproduction, growth, enemies, 

 cultivation, food value, sanitary control, and regulation of fisheries. 

 Eight papers on hard clam, abstracted elsewhere in this bibliography, are 

 listed. - J.L.M. 



1111 



Loosanoff, V. L. 1946. 



Commercial clams of the Atlantic coast of the United States. U.S. Dept. 

 Interior, Fish Wildl. Serv. , Fish. Leafl. 13, 12 p. 



Venus meraenaria is one of only 4 clam species of commercial importance on 

 the Atlantic coast of North America. Before the war only hard and soft clam 

 were taken commercially, now ocean quahog and surf clam are taken. About 10% 

 of hard and soft clams came from private beds, the rest from uncultivated 

 public grounds. Hard clam ranges from Maine to Fla. , but is most common in 

 Mass., R.I., N.Y., N.J., and Va. They live from almost high tide level to 

 over 50 ft deep, but are usually most abundant on flats several ft below low 



310 



