without undue mortality or delay in growth rate. The most suitable food 

 organisms are known, and mass culture methods have been developed. Freeze- 

 dried algae also are a suitable food. Effects of temp and turbidity on larvae 

 are understood. Epizootic mortalities of larvae occur from time to time. 

 These are caused by fungi or bacteria found in seawater. Various agents such 

 as certain chemicals, sulfa drugs, and antibiotics can be used to control such 

 diseases. Genetic studies promise to allow selection for desirable charac- 

 teristics, such as breeding at lower temps, disease resistance, fatter meats, 

 and rapid growth. Growth to market size is not a difficult problem if 

 suitable bottoms are selected, or suspended culture is used. Predation by 

 drills, sea stars, crabs, and other animals must be controlled, but methods 

 are available for control. Improvements in mechanical methods for shellfish 

 farming also will be needed. (Abstracter's note: It is true that all these 

 things are possible, and many of the techniques have been developed to the 

 point of practicality. The chief problems are economic. If costs can be 

 held to reasonable levels, clam mariculture certainly is possible. It is 

 not clear yet that costs are reasonable.) - J.L.M. 



1126 



Loosanoff, Victor L. 1965. 



Mariculture. .. Its recent development and its future. Agric. Engin. 46(2): 

 73,93-97. 



A popular account of the potentialities of mariculture from algae to mollusks 

 and crustaceans, and results of some work of the laboratory at Milford, Conn. 

 The author concludes that the future of mariculture is bright, but that the 

 science is still in its infancy. Mereenaria mereenaria is mentioned, among 

 other species. - J.L.M. 



1127 



Loosanoff, V. L. 1966. 



Problems in identification of bivalve larvae. Proc. Natl. Shellf. Assn. 56: 5 

 (abstract) . 



The abstract contains virtually no information not suggested by the title. 

 - J.L.M. 



1128 



Loosanoff, Victor L. 1971. 



Development of shellfish culture techniques. In Proc. Conf. Artif. Propag. 

 Comm. Valuable Shellf. - Oysters. Coll. Mar. Stud., Univ. Del., Newark: 

 9-40. 



Concludes that during the 1st 4 decades of the 20th century no reliable, 

 generally acceptable methods for rearing bivalve larvae had been developed. 

 Stripping of ripe eggs of Mereenaria mereenaria did not work because the 

 germinal vesicle remains unbroken and prevents fertilization. Conditioned 

 clams could be induced to spawn many times during the same spawning season 

 by appropriate manipulation of temperature. Pulverized dry algae were 

 difficult to use as larval food because the particles needed to be ground 

 small enough for ingestion. However, algae such as Viva or Laminaria, 

 ground 20 years before and dried, was used successfully to rear M. mereenaria 

 larvae to metamorphosis. Hard clam larvae are not as highly selective of 

 food as oyster larvae. This historical review contains numerous references 

 to M. mereenaria, all of which are abstracted elsewhere in this bibliography. 

 This paper is a useful summary of developments, especially for Crassostrea 

 virginica, but the techniques and conclusions apply generally to commercial 

 bivalves. It concludes that the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Laboratory 

 at Milford, Conn, played an important role in development of the methods 

 described. The contributions of Harry C. Davis are recognized, as also are 

 those of other scientists and administrators who assisted. Edwin Fordham of 

 Stratford, Conn, is recognized as the first practical shellfish hatchery 

 operator in the United States, who was rearing bivalve larvae in 1954 at a 

 hatchery on the Housatonic River. - J.L.M. 



315 



