in 1 to 2 weeks, attaching by a byssus thread to a firm surface. Sediment 

 soon covers the young clam, but the mantle fuses to form a siphon which 

 projects to the water above. Very early stages have a smooth shell. Later 

 the shell develops pronounced ridges, which hold the young clam in the 

 sediment after the byssus is discarded. Completion of burial occurs 2 to 4 

 weeks after spawning. Sexual maturity is reached in 2 to 4 years, depending 

 on water temperature. Food comes in through the siphon with pumped water, and 

 is carried to the mouth trapped on a mucus sheet which is moved by cilia on 

 the gills. Sand and other irritable particles are carried to the edge of the 

 gills, collect near the base of the siphon, and are flushed out by periodic 

 contractions of the adductor muscles. On Cape Cod and Long Island clams are 

 spawned artificially , and reared in hatcheries, then transplanted to growing 

 areas. Predation is a major problem. Fast-growing hybrid strains can be 

 developed. Pollution is also a major problem of the hard clam industry. In 

 New York about 35% of potential shellfish-producing areas are closed to 

 harvesting, yet many have large clam populations. Costs of policing to deter 

 poachers are substantial. The problem has been solved partially by trans- 

 planting clams to clean waters, where they cleanse themselves, or by 

 artificial cleansing methods or "depuration". Hard clam is low in calories 

 but rich in protein and certain minerals. Half a dozen clams on the half 

 shell contain .3 to 4 ounces of meats, with about 70 calories, iron content 

 about equal to beef liver, and an excellent supply of protein. - J.L.M. 



1316 



Milne, P. H. 1972. 



Fish and Shellfish Farming in Coastal Waters. Fishing News (Books) Ltd., 

 London, 2 08 p. 



Clams, including Mercenavia mevaenavia, replace mussels in the United States 

 as suitable sessile species for sea farming. In 1962 about 22% of hard clams 

 sold on the east coast of the U.S. were farmed on private grounds. Most 

 procedures and techniques described for oyster culture are also applicable to 

 clams. Main requirements in the growing area are firm bottom in which the 

 clam can burrow, and a regular flow of water to provide planktonic food. 

 Collectors are not required because clams settle directly on the bottom. 

 Predators are a serious problem. Methods for protection against predation 

 are expensive and require extensive maintenance. The method developed in 

 Virginia by Castagna (1970) , (described elsewhere in this bibliography) , 

 appears promising. - J.L.M. 



1317 



Mirchel, Andrew Christian Francis. 193 0. 



Enforcement of hard clam laws on Great South Bay, New York. A thesis 

 presented to the Graduate School in partial fulfillment of the requirements 

 for the degree of Master of Science in the Marine Environmental Sciences 

 Program, State Univ. of New York at Stony Brook, May 1980, xi + 135 p. 



Towns of Babylon, Islip, and Brookhaven, Suffolk County, and New York State 

 participate in enforcement of hard clam laws on Great South Bay. Responsi- 

 bilities, jurisdictions, and authorities differ, but enforcement activities 

 overlap a good deal. Lack of coordination and cooperation among participating 

 agencies weakens the overall enforcement effort. Shortcomings worth cor- 

 recting are ineffective justification for and insufficient rationalization of 

 laws and improper communication with clammers and courts. Courts are typically 

 sympathetic with violators if there is no demonstration of willful intent to 

 harm, no clear evidence of potential harm to the fishery, or no imminent risk 

 to public health. Enforcement manpower is below the calculated lowest optimal 

 level necessary for continuous coverage. This is decreased further by lack 

 of coordination. Improved coordination and emphasis on routine patrol in 

 uncertified areas, particularly at night and in fog, will improve enforcement. 

 Overall, equipment is satisfactory, although the State and the Towns are not 

 well equipped for patrol at night and in bad weather. Laws and regulations 

 are sufficient to conserve the resource and protect public health if respected 

 and enforced. Prosecution- of violators can be more effective by improving 

 communications between courts and enforcers. Legal assistance is needed to 

 help prepare cases and act as liaison to courts. Better waste control also 



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