1396.] The Formulation of the Natural Sciences. 103 



We know that the characters of specific value in given cases 

 -are usually more numerous than those of higher groups. We 

 know that they are matters of proportions, dimensions, tex- 

 tures, patterns, colors, etc., which are many. The characters 

 of the higher groups, on the contrary, are what we call struc- 

 tural, i. e., the presence, absence, separation or fusion of ele- 

 mental parts, as estimated by a common morphologic stand- 

 ard ; and it is the business of the morphologist to determine 

 each case on this basis. ■ In these characters lies the key to the 

 larger evolution, that of the higher aggregations of living 

 things. On the contrary, the study of the origin of spe- 

 cies characters gives us the evolution of species within the 

 genus, but of nothing more, except by inference. 



Classification, then, is a record of characters, arranged ac- 

 cording to their values. There still lingers, in some quarters, 

 a different opinion. This holds that there is such a thing as 

 a " natural system," as contrasted with "an anatomical sys- 

 tem." Examination shows that the supporters of this view 

 suppose that there is some bond of affinity between certain 

 living beings which is not expressed in anatomical characters. 

 A general resemblance apparent to the eye is valued by them 

 more highly than a structural character. If this " general ap- 

 pearance " is analyzed, however, it is found to be simply an 

 aggregate of characters usually of the species type, which by 

 no means precludes the presence of anatomical differences. 

 And these anatomical differences may indicate little relation- 

 ship, in spite of the general resemblance of the species con- 

 cerned, or they may have only the smallest value attached 

 to such characters, i. e., the generic. It is with regard to the 

 generic characters that the chief difference of practice 

 exists. But it is clear that the record of this grade of 

 characters cannot be modified by questions of specific 

 characters. The two questions are distinct. Both rep- 

 resent nature, and must be formulated. In fact, I have 

 long since pointed out that the same species, so far as species 

 characters go, may have different generic characters in differ- 

 ent regions. Also that allied species of different genera may 

 have more specific characters in common than remote species 

 of the same genus. 



