1897,] Psychology. 91 
by the fact that the birds seemed to conclude that the new position was 
not so favorable as the old to which next year they returned. 
His numerous other observations are interesting but space permits 
noting only the case of a wood warbler—which usually makes a covered 
nest—making a nest in a situation such that the top was formed by the 
root of a tree.—F. C. Kenyon, 
Psychic Evolution.—lIn the paper by Mr. Nichols which is con- 
cluded in this number of the NATURALIST, is to be found the Neodar- 
winian doctrine of psychic evolution, which is also adopted by Prof. W. 
H. James. I have already criticised this doctrine as expressed by Prof. 
Mark Baldwin in a paper in the Narurauisr (1895, April, p. 342; 
May, pp. 422-28). This doctrine is in short, that structures come into 
existence before the functions which they represent, and it is, therefore 
in direct opposition to the Lamarckian view, that structures are the 
result of functions. Of course the Lamarckian view does not deny that 
completed structures perform their’ functions better than they can be 
performed by unspecialized structures. This doctrine has the distinct 
advantage as a hypothesis, of really doing what a doctrine of evolution 
is supposed to do, i. e. of explaining the origin of structures. This the 
Neodarwinian doctrine does not do. Asa theory of origin of organs of 
specific consciousness and of their functions, it is quite the same whether 
we assume with Prof. James that central organs must first exist, or 
whether we believe with Prof. Wundt that special end-organs must first 
exist. The fact is that a doctrine that assumes that any organs must 
be primary and not secondary is in so far not a doctrine of evolution. 
The evolutionary doctrine of the origin of organs of special conscious- 
ness must be the same as that which explains the origin of other 
organs. That is, that energies acting as stimuli, external and internal, 
impinging on live protoplasm, produce modifications of its structure. 
If these structures are concerned directly or indirectly in the produc- 
tion or modification of states of consciousness, their use, or the subjec- 
tion of the tissues to the stimuli which produce them, will produce 
pleasure or pain. The organism proceeds to repeat or avoid the ex- 
posure thereafter accordingly, and use and disuse have their beginning. 
Whether any form of general and diffuse consciousness preceded in 
time special forms of consciousness, or whether all forms of conscious- 
ness have been due to corresponding stimuli, is a subject of present 
research. It can be assumed with much probability however, that the 
stimuli of pressure, heat, light, and hunger, would produce different 
forms of consciousness, since they would produce different effects on the 
ultimate structure. 
