458 The American Naturalist. [May, 
In the Pedagogical Seminary for October, Prof. H. T. Lukens con- 
tributes an interesting series of drawings by several children, beginning 
with the earliest attempts, at two years three months of age. He suggests 
a classification of the progressive steps in learning to draw, parallel to 
those in learning to speak. In language: I. Automatic cries and reflex 
or impulsive sounds. II. Imitation of sounds, but without meaning 
(babbling). III. Understanding of words, but no speaking beyond 
“mama,” “ papa,” “no,” ete. IV. Repetition of words as mere sounds. 
V. Use of words to express thoughts. VI. Study of grammar and 
rhetoric. In drawing the corresponding stages are: I. Automatic 
scribbling. II. Seribbling localizations and imitation of movements 
of other person’s hands. III. Understanding of pictures; only 
simplest localization of features, by scribbling. IV. Copying from 
others to see how to get the right effect in the use of lines. V. Picture 
writing, illustrated stories, etc. WI. Study of technique ; perspective, 
proportion, shading, etc. The central point, however, in the develop- 
ment of drawing, according to Prof. Lukens, is the elimination of 
scribbling and simplification of the drawings into a few telling lines. 
Prof. Sully discusses children’s drawings at considerable length in 
his book, and reproduces a large number of attempts to draw a man. 
These drawings are mostly of a comparatively late period of develop- 
ment, and show the growth of the ideas of features, proportion, relation 
of full face to profile, ete. ; the earlier scribbling is scarcely touched 
on. Prof. Sully gives three stages of progress in drawing: (1) vague, 
formless scribble ; (2) primitive design ; (3) a more sophisticated treat- 
ment of the human figure. 
The observations of Mrs. Moore and Mrs. Hall close with the 17th 
and 24th months, a period too early to furnish any data on the subject 
of drawing. 
Intellectual Work and Fatigue.—Two interesting papers on this sub- 
ject were read at the Psychological Congress. Prof. Ebbinghaus reported 
a series of tests on school children, in which it was sought to determine 
the relative capacity of different ages and sexes for intellectual work, 
as well as the effects of fatigue. Dr. J. Friedrich’s paper, since pub- 
lished in full in the Zeitschrift f. Psychologie, gave tests of a single 
school class at intervals of an hour during the entire school day. The 
methods used by the two observers were different. Prof. Ebbinghaus 
used three tests. 1. Calculation. The method of Burgerstein was 
employed; pairs of figures were given to add and multiply, and the 
number of such operations completed in ten minutes was taken as test. 
2. Memory. A series of figures was dictated rhythmically, and after 
