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THE QUARTERLY REVIEW OF BIOLOGY 



learning. He (113) was the first to make 

 use of a human maze (191 1) and originated 

 the stylus maze as a means of comparing 

 more directly the motor learning of rodent 

 and man. The work of Perrin, Webb, 

 Pechstein, and Wiltbank represents the 

 beginnings of the use of the maze in the 

 analysis of the learning process for which 

 the Chicago laboratory under the leader- 

 ship of Carr has become so justly noted. 

 Carr also devised the alternation problem 

 (109) and made important contributions 

 to our knowledge of the temporal factor 

 in the formation of associations in ani- 

 mals. In 1909, Carr originated the de- 

 layed reaction method, using the white 

 rat, and this was later extended by 

 Hunter to the dog, raccoon, and human 

 child. 



The first important contribution of 

 Yerkes to mammalian behavior was The 

 Dancing Mouse (1907). In 1899 he estab- 

 lished an animal laboratory at Harvard 

 University (2.54) and, as we have noted, 

 did worthy pioneer work in the applica- 

 tion of experimental methods to the 

 invertebrates and lower vertebrates. In 

 connection with his study of the dancing 

 mouse, Yerkes developed a general method 

 of testing animal discrimination in which 

 both reward and the electric shock as 

 punishment could be utilized. This 

 method was further standardized as the 

 Yerkes-Watson discrimination method in 

 1911, Yerkes (2.59) being responsible for 

 the animal control section and the light 

 vision apparatus. The Yerkes Multiple 

 Choice method (2.56) was devised in 1913 

 for the study of ideational behavior in 

 higher vertebrates, and such forms as the 

 crow, pig, monkey, orang-utan, chim- 

 panzee and gorilla have been tested by 

 this method by Yerkes, with the col- 

 laboration in some cases of his pupils. 

 The work of Haggerty (1899) on imitation 

 in monkeys was one of the more impor- 



tant early studies from the Harvard labora- 

 tory, which was very prolific under the 

 direction of Yerkes. 



A number of scattered investigations of 

 mammalian behavior among the earlier 

 work also deserve mention. Allen's study 

 (1904) of the guinea-pig was somewhat 

 similar to Watson's genetic study of the 

 white rat which appeared the previous 

 year. The work of Cole and of Davis on 

 the raccoon (1907) marks the beginning 

 of experimentation on that form. Berry 

 tested imitation in the white rat (1906) 

 and in the cat (1908), Yoakum (1909) 

 made a series of laboratory tests on the 

 squirrel, and Shepherd (1910) added his 

 study to the work already done on the 

 monkey. A valuable contribution to 

 laboratory methods was made in 191 1 by 

 Hamilton (139) in originating the Quad- 

 ruple Choice method, which has been 

 extensively used by him in the analysis of 

 reaction-types in the higher vertebrates. 



At approximately the same time that 

 Thorndike, Kline and Small began their 

 laboratory studies on mammals in Amer- 

 ica, Pavlov, the Russian physiologist, was 

 beginning his work on the conditioned 

 salivary reflex of the dog. The primary 

 interest of Pavlov and his earlier pupils 

 was in brain physiology rather than in the 

 behavior aspect of their work, and the 

 broad application of the conditioned 

 reflex, or response, method to the analysis 

 of animal and human behavior has come 

 more largely from the writings of Bekh- 

 terev and other psychologists. The 

 earliest characteristic experiments in con- 

 ditioning were those of Boldireff (Pavlov's 

 Lab., 1904-5) including as secondary 

 stimuli nearly all modalities. In 1907 

 Bekhterev and his pupils extended the 

 method to the respiratory mechanism of 

 dog and man; in 1908 to the human speech 

 reflexes; in 1909 and later to vasomotor 

 movements and to the motor reflexes of 



