DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY 



507 



finger, knee, and foot. In 1907, Krasno- 

 gorski began using the method in the 

 analysis of infant and child behavior. 

 About the same time the conditioned 

 reflex method was carried to Germany by 

 Nicolai and Kalischer and became known 

 to the English speaking world through 

 Pavlov's Huxley lecture (187) and later 

 writings. The early work of Watson and 

 Lashley 0-3 4) had much to do with creat- 

 , ing an interest in the method in America. 

 The method was adapted by Zeliony 

 (Pavlov's Lab., 1905) to the investigation 

 of sensory discrimination in animals and 

 ' has been employed by the Russian school 

 since in much the same way as the Yerkes- 

 Watson method has been used by the 

 American group. The early use of the 

 method in sensory discrimination work 

 was criticised by H. M. Johnson and 

 other American experimentalists . In 1910 

 Pavlov made an appeal for a sound-proof 

 laboratory where adequate control of the 

 stimuli could be had; this was built 

 shortly afterward. The contribution of 

 Pavlov and Bekhterev and of their 

 numerous students to the analysis of both 

 receptor and motor behavior of mammals 

 has come to be very generally recognized 

 and a beginning has been made toward 

 extending their method to the lower 

 organisms. 



The experimental work on the higher 

 vertebrates has been developed, in the 

 main by the psychologists, particularly in 

 America, where comparative psychology 

 has been increasingly recognized in both 

 class room and laboratory. The Journal of 

 Animal Behavior and the Behavior Mono- 



tph series were established in 191 1 to 

 take care of the growing interest in 

 research. Both were suspended in 1917 

 on account of world war conditions. In 

 19Z1, The Journal of Comparative Psychology 

 and the Comparative Psychology Monograph 

 series were begun as a continuation of the 



older journal and of Psychobiology, two 

 volumes of which had been published 

 during the interim. More recently, The 

 Journal of Genetic Psychology and the Genetic 

 Psychology Monograph series have broadened 

 out to include studies in animal behavior. 

 A canvass of the field (2.Z1) in 19x6 

 showed that systematic courses in com- 

 parative psychology were being offered in 

 no less than thirty of the leading institu- 

 tions of learning in America, while twenty 

 or more research laboratories were in 

 active operation. Important, but less 

 organized research work is also being 

 carried forward by workers in various 

 foreign countries. 



Theoretical tendencies 



The newer movement under the leader- 

 ship of Lubbock, Verworn, Locb, and 

 Morgan had aimed, on the theoretical 

 side, at the overthrow of idle speculation 

 in comparative psychology. The imme- 

 diate effect of this reaction against the 

 post-Darwinian anthropomorphism was, 

 however, merely to shift the speculative 

 interest to new problems, or to the old 

 problems as newly formulated, and to 

 raise the general level of theoretical 

 discussion. For several decades, compara- 

 tive psychology continued to be domi- 

 nated by an introspective psychology that 

 was striving, often with small success, to 

 break away from philosophy. Biological 

 and metaphysical tendencies were strangely 

 intermixed, and the occasional attempts 

 at logical synthesis were highly arbitrary 

 and superficial. The speculative element 

 was eventually thrust into the background 

 by the growing success of the experimental 

 movement, as outlined in the previous 

 section, and by the rise of behaviorism. 



During the two decades following 1890, 

 the theoretical discussion centered around 

 such related topics as (1) the point in the 

 phylogenetic series at which consciousness 



