Zoo. Glacial Erosion in Norway. 
the head of the valley of Fjerland fjord, is 3,000 to 4,000 feet 
high, the clear, bluish ice falls over a precipice of dark rocks for 
about 1,000 feet, and at about 1,500 or 2,000 feet above the sea 
begins to re-form into a glacier extending down into and nearly 
across the valley of Fjærland for a distance of somewhat less than a 
mile, to a level of only 175 feet above the sea. The glacier is much 
crevassed, and covered and filled with debris. In fact, it was the 
most dirt-laden glacier seen—not excepting the Aar glacier in the 
Alps. This material is wholly derived from the side of the moun- 
tain, and is brought down by frosts, and more largely by the fall of 
ice as it dashes from one frost-cra¢ked rock to another. One of 
these great ice-avalanches I witnessed from the other side of the 
valley, fully a mile distant. Thousands of tons must have fallen 
at this time, but as the ice fell from rock to rock, it was con- 
verted into what, seen at the distance, appeared to be white dust. 
There are no considerable streams from the upper glacier, but from 
the rapidly melting glacier below the fall the volume of water 
laden with mud is large. As this glacier is not ploughing up, but 
levelling down the inequalities of its bed of loose material, we 
cannot suppose that the mud comes from any other than the dirt — 
upon and within the ice, and that obtained by the dripping water 
as it levels the terminal moraine. This is only one of the examples 
everywhere to be seen showing the erroneous estimate of glacier- 
erosion, when based upon the amount of mud carried down by the - 
streams flowing from the glaciers; for the debris is brought upon 
their surfaces by other than grinding action, and, as far as observa- 
tion goes, it is not derived from beneath them, at least, to any great 
extent. 
Although I have seen some of the sharp angles of the rocks at 
2,000 feet above the fjords along the sides of the valleys, some- 
what rounded and scratched, yet the inequalities of the faces have 
not been removed by erosion of any kind. At numerous places in 
Norway, as well as in other countries, hammocks of rock rise abové 
or out of the glaciers, as the ice flows around them at lower levels, 
these channels having been deepened, not by glaciers, but by sub- 
glacial streams. 
Nowhere are the roches moutonnées so abundant as on the coast of 
Norway. In their more perfect form, they are not extensively 
developed along the coast at more than 250 feet above the sea. 
