1889.] Methods and Models in Geographic Teaching. 567 
The first element that should be supplied is one by which the 
conceptions which the teacher has in mind can be vividly trans- 
ferred to the student. The teacher bases his mental pictures on 
something that he has seen, if he is so fortunate as to have trav- 
eled and brought home with him fresh memories of the morpho- 
logy of the earth's surface ; or if not an observer himself, he has 
at least had time to gain his geographic conceptions slowly, and 
with the aid of various descriptions and illustrations that he can- 
. not present in their entirety to his class. How shall his ideas be 
passed on to his students ? Maps and pictures are of value, but as a 
rule they are of low quality, except for the larger parts of the world. 
They present no sufficient expression of the forms of moderate 
size on which we live. Photographs are excellent as illustrations 
of actual landscapes, yet they are too often chosen with other than 
geographic reasons for the choice, and but few schools have them 
in sufficient variety. Moreover, all these aids lack one element 
of great value, namely, the third dimension that so strongly 
characterizes all geographic forms. I have therefore desired to 
use geographic models, which very easily give clear indication of 
the relief of a surface, and if without all its detail, still possess ' 
effective and suggestive form. Models are therefore to be taken 
as one of the means of improving the methods of illustrating what 
the teacher wishes to place before the class. 
Again, physical geography as ordinarily defined is too largely 
merely descriptive, and not physical at all. Indeed, geography, 
which is supposed to treat of the form of the surface of the 
earth, neglects the form of the earth's surface to an unfortunate 
extent. We hear much about the connection between geography 
and history, for example ; but what is this subject that is con- 
nected with history ? Where is geography itself taught with the 
same thoroughness that characterizes the modern teaching of the 
biological sciences ? We recognize of course the vital connection 
between geography and history, just as the botanist recognizes 
the connection between botany and medicine, but what botanist 
would be satisfied with stopping his teaching of his science or 
even of only its elements at the point that would suffice for the 
collector of medical herbs, or for the doctor of medicine? And 
