614 Emotional Expression. [June, 
from the course of action which has as its concomitant the pain- 
ful feeling. Pleasurable emotions might be. defined as attractive 
and painful emotions, as repulsive inclinations or tendencies. 
Objects which by their stimuli bring about attractive or repulsive 
tendencies, are pleasurable or painful. It is needless to say that 
the pleasurable or painful elements are frequently so combined in 
an emotion, that it is difficult to determine whether the compound 
is pleasurable or painful. Looking at the physiological concomi- 
tants of these two broad classes of emotions, evidence seems to 
sanction the view that pleasurable emotions are accompanied by 
well-sustained, while painful emotions are accompanied by ill- 
sustained, nervous actions. Physiologically viewed, a pleasurable 
emotion is a nervous action wherein the nervous energy does not 
sink below a certain level, the repairs afforded by nutritive sub- 
stances keeping it above that level. The physiological aspect of 
pain is waste exceeding repair, the nervous energy thus sinking 
below a certain level. 
Ignoring feeling altogether, it must follow that a creature with 
no hereditary paths of action already cut in its nervous: mecha- 
ism would act mainly in lines where its movements were well 
sustained. Such movements would, in the long run, come to 
have a preponderance over ill-sustained or painful movements. 
Moreover, movements from a source of pain being better ~ 
tained than movements towards that source would eventually 
prevail. Consequently the repulsive nature of pain is x physio 
logical consequence. Feelings accompanying attractive i 
repulsive tendencies are by association pleasurable or painful. $ 
these conclusions be granted, we have an explanation of the eo 
tions and of that totality of emotional influence which constitutes 
will, as Professor Bain has pointed out. 
Now the actions of every individual under an emotion 
ulus of any nature, are determined not only by his own © 
ences, but by a vast experience of pains and pleasures pane 
to him by his ancestors. Accordingly in studying the ge is 
which are the objective -expressions of various emotions, ; ; 
x A dividual ex 
necessary to consider the ancestral as well as the ge hat itis 
perience which has made the particular expression W4 is 
The antithesis of painful and pleasurable emotions 1S jude al 
limited “ principle of antithesis” extended so as tO " f pait- 
emotional expression, Speaking broadly the expression © | 
al stim- 
