1883.] Emotional Expression. 615 
ful emotions is a relaxed state of the muscles while pleasurable 
emotions are expressed by a vigorous action of the muscles, 
This general statement needs modification in some cases where, 
as often happens, pleasurable and painful emotions are combined, 
or where the emotion, though painful, is expressioned by move- 
ments from the source of pain, such movements, as before stated, 
being better sustained than movements in the opposite direction. 
Granting this fact, it must still be admitted that pain, fer se, often 
is a strong stimulus in provoking muscular contraction. The 
Writhings of one in pain are not simply movements from a source 
of pain. Yet even in such cases the action is not long continued, 
and is apt to exhaust itself sooner than actions expressive of 
pleasure. Moreover such actions, under painful stimuli, are in a 
certain sense movements from a source of pain, for the contrac- 
tion of the muscles, by bringing about vascular dilation, draws 
the blood from the over excited nerve centers; consequently the 
€xcessive nervous action is lessened by their contraction. A 
Proper understanding of what has already been said concerning 
€motions in general will be of assistance in the study of particu- 
lar emotional phases which it is the writer’s purpose very briefly 
to discuss. The study of the whole field of emotional expres- 
sion, at once precise and philosophic, attempted by Darwin, is 
fully appreciated by naturalists. There remains, however, many 
Points of interest connected with emotional expression, where an 
extension of Darwin’s views is possible. In his “ Expression of 
the emotions” Darwin appears to have based his order of pres- 
entation on no classification of the emotions, moreover he occa- 
sionally presents his “ principle of antithesis ” as an explanation of 
€motional expression where the actions might be better explained 
on the universal principle of pleasure sought or pain avoided. For 
instance, the shrugging of the shoulders as indicative of helpless- 
Ress is explained by Darwin, on his principle of antithesis, as being 
the contrary of emotions expressive of éffort or determination. It 
would appear more philosophic to ascribe such acts to incipient 
cringing or cowering. Helplessness implies an obstacle which can- 
not be resisted or overcome. Now it must be obvious that when a 
Creature meets an adversary too powerful to be resisted or avoided, 
the only course to pursue is to lessen the pain of chastisement 
which the powerful adversary may inflict. If its adversary be a 
bully of its own species, capable of being pacified by propitiatory 
Movements, the movements of the weaker creature serve a dou- 
