RANGE MANAGEMENT ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS. 89 



varying with the different important forage plants on the same area. 

 A knowledge of the plant species on a range, their life habits and 

 forage value, is almost imperative in order to know (1) whether the 

 range is retrograding, improving, or stationar}^; (2) whether the 

 good forage plants are being handicapped in the production of herb- 

 age or of a viable seed crop; (3) whether the important plants of a 

 given range are being grazed sooner than they should be; and (4) 

 whether there is loss of forage due to failure to utilize a species at 

 its period of maximum palatabilit}^ 



Four of the six so-called earmarks or indicators of overgrazing 

 will be recognized only by those familiar with the plant cover. To 

 recognize the worthless, transient, and undesirable species on a 

 range and to differentiate them from the valuable, permanent, and 

 desirable species is indispensable to a knowledge of what is going on 

 on the range and the steps that must be taken toward improvement. 

 The same is true of undergrazing. To tell with accuracy whether 

 a range is producing the annual weight of beef, mutton, or wool of 

 which it is capable the potential sources of forage must be recognized 

 and a working knowledge obtained of the life history of the domi- 

 nant species and their periods of maximum palatability. 



It will be noted also that range management can not be worked 

 out effectively until range divisions and grazing periods are estab- 

 lished and the grazing capacity decided upon to a reasonable degree 

 of efficiency. Now, range division, establishment of grazing periods, 

 and estimation of grazing capacity all require a familiarity with 

 the local forage crop. Fencing and salting also are often undertaken 

 primarily because of local forage conditions. The signs of over- 

 grazing are not at all always apparent to the observer who does 

 not know the forage, for there may be a good or even luxuriant 

 stand of unpalatable species taking the place of better forage that 

 has succumbed as a result of grazing. 



Injury to coniferous reproduction varies directly with the grazing 

 intensity, and if there is abundance of forage suitable to the stock 

 using the range there will be little damage to the timber repro- 

 duction. 



The necessity of knowing plants poisonous to stock is evident. 

 Even with the present means for dissemination of knowledge, there 

 is still much need of education along these lines. On the other 

 hand, accurate knowledge concerning the identity of our native 

 poisonous plants is still meager. Undoubtedly many cases of poison- 

 ing on the range could have been averted had the toxic character 

 of the plants responsible been recognized. For example, Zygadenus 

 is often confused with grass or harmless liliaceous plants, or sheep 

 are turned on to fruiting lupine. There is, undoubtedly, in some 



